Natural Science

The asteroid into the atmosphere

2009-04-14T08:52:00.000-07:00

October 6 last year, astronomers found a 4 meters long and weighing about 83 tons of asteroid 2008 TC3, the calculation results show that, 2008TC3 chance of colliding with Earth as much as 100%. At this time, arrived at the asteroid from the Earth's atmosphere is only 19 hours before. However, in the asteroid entered the atmosphere after the combustion exhausted, residues falling in the Nubian Desert in northern Sudan, about 30 kilometers outside, the scattered wreckage of a number of asteroids and weighing about 3.95 kilograms.

This is the first time scientists are tracking the course of asteroids colliding with Earth. Scientists believe that in 1908 and swept the Tunguska forest in Siberia large asteroid celestial bodies in general, may be every 200 years the Earth will be hit first. Once the asteroid entered Earth's atmosphere, colliding with Earth after the explosion or disintegration occurs. Such as an asteroid exploded in a city or directly over the collision will lead to a devastating disaster.

Astronomers pointed out that although the number of science fiction movies of asteroids colliding with Earth would, in fact, the possibility of asteroids colliding with Earth exist. For the existence of threatening to destroy the asteroid is very necessary, but such a threatening asteroid, or even more complex than the movie.

Best to avoid such a disaster is to change the asteroid crashed into Earth orbit.

Space Shuttle Discovery's safe return to Earth

● The United States space shuttle Discovery, landed safely on the 28th the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, the successful completion of the delivery to the International Space Station components and solar panels bracket task.

Discovery Time in the Central Plains at 3:14 on the 29th to land because of bad weather than the scheduled time for more than an hour late.

Discovery's trip is the first space shuttle flight this year. Time of the next space shuttle flight is tentatively scheduled to present on May 12.

Obama video greetings from the International Space Station astronauts connection

● Barack Obama President of the United States, on the 24th and the International Space Station astronauts on the 10 video connections, greeting each other with questions. In the call, the International Space Station Commander Mike? Fink told Obama, a space station orbit the earth every 90 minutes around every 24 hours to see the sunrise 16.

Sandra female astronauts? Magnus, in November last year, started work at the space station, Barack Obama in the video signal, to see her because of weight loss and long hair in the air being released into the atmosphere. Obama asked: "long hair in the space station trouble? Want to cut point? Popular short hair." Magnus replied: "honestly, I cut hair look good, so long insisted on staying . "

This is the first time since Barack Obama became president talk with astronauts. Obama connection with the day with the astronauts, as well as primary and secondary school students from Washington, their own question: "What astronauts eat?" "Can play in space electric?" "There are few stars in space?" "What in order to become an astronaut? "... ... the International Space Station astronauts original Permanent 3.

On the 15th of this month, seven space shuttle Discovery astronauts traveling from the United States John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida, launched into the international space station on the 17th. Discovery is scheduled to leave on the 25th International Space Station, on the 27th to return to the Kennedy Space Center.

Microsoft plans to cooperate with NASA to create a virtual telescope

● Microsoft announced the establishment of and cooperation between NASA, Microsoft World Telescope (WorldWide Telescope) project, will be NASA's Mars Exploration United States and other celestial bodies of a large number of photos. Coming through the system, the public will be able to access from worldwidetelescope.org Mars, the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, the universe of high-definition images and scientific information.

NASA officials said, which is in line with the new NASA Administrative open and transparent policy. NASA provided to the Microsoft for more than 100 TB of data, including the August 2005 launch of the Mars Exploration Orbiter (MRO), lunar exploration Orbiter (LRO), such as photographs. It will help stimulate the general enthusiasm for astronomical exploration.

Hubble Space Telescope archive images found abandoned by the new exoplanet

2009-04-14T08:50:00.001-07:00

Photographs from 1998 found in extrasolar planets

NEW YORK News April 3, according to foreign media reports, astronomers have recently re-examine the Hubble telescope the past 15 years shooting a large number of images and data files, and from the discovery of a previously overlooked new extrasolar planets.

HR8799 To further explore the surrounding stars in a star running more planets, astronomers have carefully studied the Hubble telescope in 15 years a large number of images collected by data files. Astronomers using a shading method, the stars have been observed to mask the bright light, so that may be found running around some of the star exoplanet light of the weak. It is through this method, astronomers finally taken in 1998 found an image of this extrasolar planets. This technology can be applied from Hubble telescope is similar to the more than 200 data sets can also be used by ground-based telescopes to obtain a large number of image data.

University of Toronto astronomer David -is one discoverer. David said that Now we have proved the feasibility of this approach. We can be applied to all observational studies and researches files, can be used to discover whether these images in a hidden planet. Hubble data files can best embody the scientific efficiency. It is easy to understand, and its structure is very suitable for information search scientists. According to the U.S. computer scientists Rensselaer Polytechnic Peter - Fox introduced so far Hubble data files have been used for more than 6 times. In fact, experimental or other scientific tools have had a mass of information, but most are hard-copy format or hard to read vs Reserve, but not after the general analysis.

Hubble data file for David's research work provides the meta-data and query functions. David explained that You can use different parameters, different goals and different wavelengths name query, query is easy. But more importantly, the data quality is very high, they are processed and calibrated, it is also a high-quality search results. Proven this technology in the next may be more widely used. David said launched in the near future," James - Webb "telescope, will certainly use this technology as the search for extrasolar planets, one of the strategy. We need a way to diminish the stars shine. James - Webb telescope will be launched in 2013, and dedicated to the search for extrasolar planets Kepler Space Telescope was previously launched in early March.

David further explained that the Department of extrasolar planets is a difficult observation of celestial bodies, which is located in our solar system around a star outside the run. Although, according to astronomers speculated that in reality there are many extrasolar planets to be discovered, but so far, astronomers identified only 300 extrasolar planets, which some of the planet's environment, with the formation of life on Earth's environment very similar. So far, astronomers are red through the space telescope to collect data to understand the atmosphere of extrasolar planets. However, as soon Spitzer infrared telescope will all run out of the refrigerant, which would severely limit the capacity of its observation. Astronomers said that from the Earth to an extrasolar planets to see the atmosphere, it is necessary for a large number of calories eruption, and the atmosphere necessary for the existence of no wind or very little wind. In addition, when this Department of extrasolar planets from the star behind it through, the cover star, the planet is a clear need to just quiet night, so that astronomers can accurately measure the thermal emission of its minor changes.

As of January 2009, scientists around the world in a total of 285 planetary systems discovered 335 extrasolar planets. In the near future, they seem to discover another planet Previously found to have the atmosphere of extrasolar planets are orbiting telescope Spitzer found. Need to add that, in the current discovery of extrasolar planets, most of them are Jupiter-like gaseous giant planets like. These planets are usually very close distance from the star, so the surface temperature is usually over in a few hundred degrees Celsius.

Fear of an earthquake disaster area with the recurrence of strong earthquakes

2009-04-14T08:03:00.000-07:00

The scientific community that a strong earthquake on the 6th morning, resulting in many dead or missing in the central region of Italy, as located at the plate and the other two micro-plate to take care of the Convergence area prone to earthquakes of this on, but do not rule out the next few months of strong earthquakes will happen again.

Italian Institute of Geophysics, said that early morning in the Apennine mountains (Apennines) earthquake in central, as far as measuring the size of six. Second, place in Rome, about 100 kilometers northeast of the Agency. Bear the brunt of the historical city of Aquila.

Edinburgh, Scotland, "the British Geological Survey agency" experts said Mason, Apennine mountain was prone to strong earthquakes, earthquake occurred on the 6th degree of the earthquake that is not surprising.

Apennine ridge runs through the Italian peninsula, in the past century, the mountains and the surrounding area of five large earthquakes have occurred, claiming about 34,000 lives. The earthquake occurred on the 6th for the past twelve years to the third largest, has a radius of 140 kilometers range of feeling.

Paris, France, "Institute of Geophysics," said geologist , Italy The earthquake occurred very close to the surface in place, it can be said is that the underground city of Aquila.

Northern Ireland University of Ulster, Professor of Geophysics Mike Barry said that these form a "complex tectonic"; to Apennine mountain as an example, the problem in the normal fault, the crust was brittle underground sideslip actions, fault and therefore follow the torn oblique angle.

400 million U.S. dollars a space school speech class and explain

2009-04-14T07:58:00.001-07:00

This year is the 40th anniversary of the human landing on the moon, as the Apollo lunar exploration plan to the designers of cars, U.S. scientists, Dr. von Stockhausen Dyson to encourage students to: "everything must have curiosity and imagination, learning to use his right brain that are flowing creativity and imagination, think of someone unexpected, and then left to the implementation of the use, step-by-step. This is done to determine a person's event, the key difference. "

By the "corporation of Taiwan Association of Space and Science Education" (TASSE) with the United States in Houston sponsored by the Association for Space Education "HASSE Space School 2009 lecture tour," in March for the continuation of the popular lecture, will be 4 this weekend / 11 (Taichung), 4 / 12 (Taipei) again brought the value of a class of 400 million U.S. dollars, so that you dream of a round! Free to invite all kinds of high school to university together groups of students and parents.

March 1 this year, organized by "Inspire me! Imagination! Curiosity!" Seminars attracted 160 students and parents present, unprecedented that the bottom of my heart everyone has fun space dream! Re-debut of HASSE Space lecture tour of schools, will also bring a range of exciting courses. Will be in space by the Houston Association of Science Education and Executive Director Mr. Liu Zhuoyu, the United States Mr. John Dankowski Space Center and Space Association teachers, and students all share the U.S. NASA Space Center, the latest development information, the U.S. life scientists and astronauts wisdom, motivate and inspire more young people.

NASA Space Center, Mr. John Dankowski, will be at the scene by the gas gun and insulated bricks for a "space shuttle thermal tiles" experiment, will enable us to know how the space shuttle in a state of high-speed friction to penetrate the atmosphere, and not because of overheating explosion!

Fantasies such as astronauts in the weightless space shuttle-like floating in from top to bottom, is the hearts of many people looking forward to life, but you do not know is that life is sometimes in a weightless state! "Weightless flight," the curriculum, physical science teachers will be way, the experimental demonstration of weightlessness, so you do not need to enter the space shuttle, you can see a rare state of weightlessness!

NASA moon landing 40th anniversary, the United States Space Science Education Association of Houston, will take you into the earth from the space where the most recent! The value of a class of 400 million U.S. dollars, so that you embrace the dream of space to satisfy the imagination and curiosity!

British Columbia Department of Earth Sciences major teaching and research centers to build

2009-04-14T07:21:00.001-07:00

Governor on the 6th Gordon Campbell announced that British Columbia province of 37.5 million yuan funds sponsored by the University of British Columbia Department of Earth Sciences Building, built teaching and research, looking forward to become the largest British study of earth science innovation leader and the province of British Columbia oil and gas, mining industry, to cultivate future leaders.

Gordon Campbell said that the establishment of the Department of Earth Science teaching and research center is expected to allow the mining province of British Columbia's leading international standards, and mining and in-depth study of the relationship between climate change. Building the new building, so that the Institute for Earth Science teachers and students and the mining industry who can benefit each other.

Earth Science Teaching and Research Building, a total budget of 7,500 million, half of the provincial government invested 37.5 million yuan, is expected in summer 2010 to begin construction to provide 480 job opportunities.

Mining construction flaunt environmental technology, environmental design by the energy (LEED) certification, provided by British Columbia, Department of nature, such as the Earth's oceans and Statistics Department and the Department of research.

Director of the Gore post-secondary education (Murray Coell) said that the investment in tertiary education, you can quickly see the cost-effectiveness. Province of British Columbia was a dearth of experts in earth science, earth science teaching and research building investments can make up for this demand.

Near completion of the museum put on Biological Diversity (Beaty Biodiversity center andMuseum) teaching and research building, the Pacific will be the Earth-based expansion of the museum covers an area of 14,570 square feet is expected early in 2010 the opening of the current teachers every year attract thousands of museum visitors are born .

Du University of British Columbia (Stephen Toope) to thank the provincial government and businesses, Department of Earth Sciences of the strong teaching and research centers sponsored and foresight. Duplessis said the investment in equipment, cultivation of students is to train the next British Columbia provincial and global mining leader.

The next 10 years of mining in Canada is expected to need 15,000 technicians, Department of Earth Sciences graduate teaching and research center for the province of British Columbia's oil and gas, mining industry, to maintain prosperity in the future situation.

Global Ocean Observing local victims seek

2009-04-02T23:01:00.000-07:00

Institute of Oceanology, State Oceanic Administration of the second satellite marine environment National Key Laboratory of Dynamics researcher Xu Jianping

With economic development, scientific and technological progress, mankind should not only intensify the study of natural disasters, and try to predict the day, week, month, year or even the weather conditions, but also a prediction a few years, dozens of years disasters to happen so that mankind can advance on disaster prevention at the source. And to accurately forecast the weather still need to be large-scale and even global, regional and long-term accumulation of observational data, but also the need to enhance maritime disasters caused by weather or the awareness of anomaly. In fact, the development of marine science, especially in the business of ocean and climate forecasting technology, on the ocean wide (the size of the Earth accounts for 71%%) large-scale, quasi-synchronous and deep-seated lack of survey data has been restricted bottlenecks in their development. The advent of the 20th century 90's section of the Argo buoys, and in 2000 launched the international Argo program to bring ocean and atmospheric scientists a rare opportunity, so that depth of human understanding and knowledge of the sea real-time large-scale changes in weather conditions improve and marine forecasting accuracy, effectively prevent the worsening global weather and marine disasters, the desire will become a reality. The frequency of natural disasters the world is at the call of human need to strengthen the global ocean observing real-time.

With the international Argo program on an international series of newly developed high-tech marine technology, such as Argo Profiling Float, satellite communications systems and data processing technology in the global ocean at the creation of a real-time, high-resolution and fully automated monitoring system so that Express, accurate, large-scale gathering of the global upper ocean temperature and salinity of the water profile information, help people deepen their understanding of ocean temperature and salinity vertical structure, circulation and energy, as well as understanding the process of water balance and to reveal the sea ─ ─ the mechanism of interaction, to further improve the model initial fields and improve the air-sea coupled model, thereby enhancing the long-term weather forecasting and the ability of short-term climate prediction, including with the ENSO-related events (such as floods, droughts, etc.) of the forecast capacity and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation and other re-recognize.

North of the Pacific, this region not only has the world's oceans and borders in the West most ─ ─ Kuroshio flow, as well as the global ocean and climate system, the largest inter-annual changes ─ ─ El Nino phenomenon, but also across the Pacific and Indian Oceans have great Warm Pool, as well as precipitation with the world's largest ─ ─ Pacific ITCZ, which is an international marine scientific research has been the hot waters, there are many issues to be dealt with major scientific frontier, much-needed strength to carry out exploration and research organizations. However, the ocean environment observation data, especially long-term, large-scale and real-time ocean observing a serious lack of information, the impact of China's marine and atmospheric scientist at the forefront of research hot areas of the outcome of the driving force for innovation.

To this end, in the next few years, our country should be increased in the North Pacific and East Indian Ocean buoy deployment efforts. This is not only because Argo observations on the current international Nets are the only real-time of a global ocean observing system, and its observation and the accumulation of information on the marine and atmospheric science and the development of major scientific significance; but also for our country suffering from such a marine and the impact of climate disasters, maritime power, especially during the last long-standing close to the ocean off the coast of our country and not enough emphasis on the Global Ocean Observing observed a serious shortage of information on the accumulation of the countries involved in Argo real-time global ocean observing network is more important practical significance.

The Earth gravity field and ocean circulation satellite put into trial operation

2009-03-29T09:35:00.000-07:00

European Space Agency announced on the 20th, the Earth gravity field and satellite ocean circulation (Goce) since launch on the 17th after the satellite control system is operating well at 0:00 on the 20th from the start, the satellite carried out a mode switch, all scientific instruments into the trial operation stage .

European Airlines in a press release issued that day said, Goce launched its portable satellite tracking device that is put into operation, the role of this instrument are to receive the Global Navigation Satellite System signals, and its high accuracy, except exert navigation, but also records and satellite orbit adjust. At present, the European aircraft located the Italian Earth Observation Center has received a tracker back to the first signal. In the coming weeks, Goce will complete a series of difficult tasks, such as startup electric ion drive mode and adjust, such as satellite orbit.

Goce satellite is launched in Europe in recent years, the Air Board's most advanced satellite to detect one, it weighed about 1 ton, equipped with a number of sets of high sensitivity detection equipment, access to the data will help scientists gain a better understanding of the internal structure of the Earth, on human study of marine and climate change will also be helpful.

Discovery astronauts finish 2nd walk JEM GPS antenna installation

2009-03-29T03:19:00.000-07:00

The United States space shuttle "Discovery" at the International Space Station today Astronaut (International Space Station) outside the completion of the second spacewalk for the Japanese Experiment Module "I hope its" installation of GPS (Global Positioning System) antenna, a space station the construction of the final stages of completion.

GMT 16:51, Space Station orbiting 354 kilometers above the South Pacific Department of the Earth's orbit, the astronauts Wansen history (Steve Swanson) and Aqaba (Joseph Acaba) begin spacewalk.

Astronaut itinerary in accordance with our established, the implementation of the Discovery space walk 3 times in the 2nd operation, the entire process lasted 6 hours and 30 minutes.

Space Station yesterday, the successful launch airfoil huge solar panels, for the Earth's orbit on the space lab to do a good job the first time, generating pre-loaded with homework. History and Aqaba Wansen Yan P6 today released two of the batteries for the next mission in June to replace the battery at the time of preparation work.

Space Station as well as two of the Japanese Experiment Module "I hope its" global positioning system antenna installation.

Global Positioning System-guided Japan's cargo spacecraft will help HTV. The cargo spacecraft will be opened later this year.

This spacecraft can hope that its water supply, food and scientific equipment and, if necessary, may also be required for other parts of the supply station.

Discovery in Florida on the 15th launched, space station construction mission to implement the final phase of the job. Lasted for more than 10 years of space station construction projects in 16 countries from its birth and up to 100 billion U.S. dollars to spend.

Astronomical feat! Live asteroid hit the Earth

2009-03-29T03:17:00.000-07:00

Astronomers detected the first time in the course of an asteroid hit the Earth, but also from its follow-up period is still space to bring it, the last and the collection and analysis of meteorites. This was published in "Nature" the study of scientific journals, not only to allow scientists to know more about the F-type asteroids, and perhaps inspire them to consider how to avoid future occurrence of the tragedy of the Earth into a planet.

This 14 meters wide, 83-tonne, about the bus-sized asteroid is arrived at in October last year, 19 hours before the Earth was discovered, astronomers also have an unprecedented opportunity for observation and the final route of projectile scene for the fireball. Similar to the asteroid-sized objects, it is difficult to detect in space, there is 3-4 per year into the Earth.

I am astonished that there is some remnants of the asteroid had not completely destroyed during re-entry, but landed in the northern part of Sudan, about 29 kilometers stretch of the Nubian Desert. By December, astronomers mobilized civil 45 University students and teachers line up in the desert meteorite fragments of a search and finally found 280 meteorites weighing from 1. 283 grams to five grams, ranging from a total of about four. 45 kilograms, the whole process is like a needle in a haystack.

California, "Institute of search space intelligence" (SETI) astronomers that the probability of follow-up to the Asteroids, "is only one chance of a lifetime." Involved in monitoring this asteroid Belfast Northern Ireland Queen's University professor fee, points out that scientists are now able to predict not only where the asteroid will be rammed, but also early warning, to obtain relevant information immediately.

The United States Arizona viewing an amateur, and October 6 last year, reported the coordinates of an asteroid discovered in Cambridge, Massachusetts to the Minor Planet Center. This is just one of hundreds of routine records, but the computer system has the magic to refuse this extra information. Gaspar, director of the center told the "natural": "I see this information and to manually make a track, it is obvious that crashed into the Earth."

Asteroids of this size and brightness of the Earth should not pose a risk, but Gaspar safety procedures in accordance with the standards of practice, direct-dial NASA (NASA) hotline. He also reminded the Jet Propulsion Laboratory rationale of Sanchez, who immediately calculate the asteroid orbit. Computer program shows that the probability of an asteroid hit the Earth up to hundred percent, will hit the atmosphere within 13 hours, forces one to two tonnes of TNT equivalent TNT.

It was named 2008 TC3, was later renamed . I Tower (Arabic meaning for the station on the 6th)." It is classified as F-type asteroids are very rare types of meteorites. Only one. 3% F is a class of asteroids, formed in 45 billion years ago, with the Earth and other planets about the solar system at the same time. Since then most of the time it at between Mars and Jupiter around the sun outside the asteroid belt running it into a collision of another track, and narrow the gap between the earth, eventually assisted by gravity at the Earth into the Earth onto the road.

Stay in the Nubian Desert Station "on the 6th station" and the town of Al-fat people, are said to see the return of "fireball similar to the Rocket." KLM in Africa over the driver, also 2008 TC3 to 12,000 meters per second speed collision the atmosphere, reported that there is to see a bright flash on the ground.

35 million U.S. dollars the United States and rich visit space

2009-03-29T03:15:00.001-07:00

5 the world's first "space tourists" ‧ American millionaire Charles Simonyi is scheduled to begin on the 26th his second trip to space, is expected to become the world's first space travel "repeat." Russian Space Management department previously announced, subject to restrictions on the carrying capacity of the international space station, after the cancellation of this year Russia intends to "space tourist" project. This means that temporary Shimoni as possible to the Russian space tourist last at their own expense.

The first repeat space travel

Shimoni is scheduled on the 26th, accompanied by two professional astronauts from the Baikonur launch site in Kazakhstan launched to the International Space Station. He is expected to remain at the space station less than two weeks, April 7 to take "Union" manned spacecraft to return to the Earth.

If the successful completion of the trip, Simonyi will become the world's first space of the two "space tourists." Shimoni finish in April 2007 the first two-week trip to outer space, becoming the world's first self-financed five "space tourists." Shimoni trip that took 25 million U.S. dollars. Media reported that the cost of this trip will be more than 35 million U.S. dollars.

Shimoni again for reasons of space travel, the Associated Press quoted him 23 in a telephone interview to answer the report, a number of astronauts in space Shimoni Ending first told him after the tour, once again, "Flying" and the feel with the first harvest is radically different from that space to do his initiation Tour "repeat" of the idea.

Finally the tour at their own expense or

Russian Federation Space Agency officials said earlier this year, the number of the International Space Station astronauts Permanent probably by the end of May to 6 people, more than doubled in the past. Because of the space station and personnel carriers bearing stress increased after the Russian side intends to cancel this year at their own expense, "space tourists" project.

Heard the news, Shimoni decided to seize the "last chance." "Either now (emphasis on space travel), or no (opportunity)." He said.

However, even though there are still opportunities for the third space, Shimoni do not intend to have another try. "I am no longer young," the 60-year-old millionaire said that the addition of his new wife has agreed to no longer "three space travel."

To help achieve scientific experiments

Shimoni put on the first trip as a "sequel." He said that two out of space travel the same purpose, namely "to support space research, universal civil aerospace business, to introduce offspring exciting science and engineering (the outcome)."

The Hungarian-American millionaire has a doctorate in computer science and flight license, a former Microsoft software development division, to participate in research and development of software such as Word and Excel.

The space trip, the Shimoni intended to assist the completion of a number of medical and technical aspects of radiation experiments, will also use the "Windows on Earth" software for the Earth to take photographs for people to watch.

Microsoft co-operation with NASA to create a virtual telescope

2009-03-29T03:13:00.001-07:00

According to foreign media reports on March 25, Microsoft and the U.S. space agency said on March 24 announced the establishment of cooperative relations, the cooperation will allow the software giant telescope of the virtual world (WorldWide Telescope) was the United States and other NASA Mars a large number of photographs of celestial bodies.

NASA and Microsoft will jointly develop a system so that the public can come into contact with Mars, the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, the universe of high-definition photos and scientific information and on-line website at worldwidetelescope.org to explore the universe. NASA's science mission, deputy director of the Commission ‧ Edie Wheeler (Ed Weiler), said: 『for NASA, the primary problem is to allow the public easier access to U.S. scientific and astronomical information, particularly in the new The Government has recently focused on Chief will govern the case of open and transparent. 』

A few years ago, the search engine giant Google and U.S. space agency set up on the co-operation, the U.S. space agency to provide a lot of scientific photographs, to enhance the functions of Google Earth. At this free service provided by Google Earth three-dimensional photographs of Mars, the spacecraft real-time tracking information and a virtual trip to Mars and so on. Microsoft said the U.S. space agency will provide them with more than 100 TB of data, the global web telescope will begin later this year to integrate the information, including the August 2005 launch of the Mars Exploration Orbiter (MRO) photographs from the So far in 2006, scientists have been studying these photos.

Microsoft Research is responsible for external affairs vice president, Tony ‧ Hoey (Tony Hey) Say: 『such cooperation will enable people all over the world can be at the rich and interactive environment of the Moon and Mars in detail View the new photos. Want to explore the space and experience the achievements of computer science and computer technology developers, educators and students, the world's most powerful telescope instrument. 』

Global Telescope website will soon have moon orbiter (LRO) photographs. The probe is scheduled to launch in May this year, aims to collect environmental information surface of the moon. Global Telescope website on line a year ago, the integration of ground and space telescope photographs analog observation to the effect of the vastness of the universe.

NASA Ames Research Center Director Pete Worden ‧ (Pete Worden), said: 『NASA is excited to work with Microsoft to establish cooperation with students and those who live z owl owl Quan Shu go together to share their photos massive planet . This is an impressive astronomy resources, help to inspire our next generation to explore the passion of astronomy. 』

New York City Science Fair

2009-03-29T03:11:00.001-07:00

By the New York City Department of Education, City University of New York (the City University of New York, referred to as CUNY) jointly organized the American Museum of Natural History, "New York City Science and Engineering Fair" (New York City Science and Engineering Fair) final, 25 Museum of Natural History in the United States held within the exhibition hall of marine biology, a total of 14 events to attract 176 high school students displayed more than 700 topics. The final 20 selected winners will attend on behalf of New York City in May, Nevada (Nevada) Reno (Reno) at the Intel International Science and Technology Competition (Intel International Science and Engineering Fair). Yesterday's exhibition, a total of nearly 40 Watson present, take part in the exhibition are about one-quarter of the total number of students, Watson variety of research projects, brisk performance.

Yesterday's exhibition involving 14 categories of subjects, including zoology, behavioral sociology, biochemistry, cell and molecular biology, chemistry, computer science, earth and planetary science, engineering, environmental science, mathematics, medical and health science, microbiology, physics and botany.

Klein, director of City Board of Education (Joel I. Klein) said that these students to enter the finals are the future of the United States, President Barack Obama has pointed out a few days ago the scientific, health and medical care is still the country's key projects. Finalist in the 176 has 155 students (90%) from public schools, there is such a good student, parent-teacher should be grateful for their support and help, they are the true heroes.

Chiang grew up in Fujian this year, 17-year-old, now studying at the Manhattan International High School (Manhattan International HS) 11 years, he take part in the exhibition are Watson yesterday to the United States in a shortest time. Entries belong to him the subject areas of biochemistry, research topics for the "DNA on the treatment of diabetes."

Chiang at Columbia University, a laboratory, he said that the initial idea of the experiment by Professor Milan N. Stojanavic suggested that he was at two under the guidance of the instructor, independent completion of the experiment.

Talking about his own life four years the United States,Chiang said: "Today can be in the forefront of this final meeting, most of the parents to thank my encouragement, to thank the United States at the beginning of my assist teachers and students."Chiang father from Shanghai, the mother from Fujian, immigration to the United States, the father cooks in restaurants, the mother opened a video shop, on the whole town lived in Manhattan. After the first Chiang to the United States to study at secondary school on the city of Wagner, he did not remember that a Chinese class, usually beginning two years of his cram school go learn English, but all classmates to help him, let him be able to relax at the Education and study mode.

Chiang said that parents found him to study as long as their efforts are allowed to dream come true. Parents work hard, even though first-generation immigrants, as English is not good, but they do not give up on their own hard work to create a happy life.

Melbourne 4.6 Richter scale earthquake happened more than 10 years rare

2009-03-15T03:41:00.000-07:00

The history of Australia has just experienced the most serious forest fires in Victoria, Australia, on the 6th night also happened the past 10 years the largest earthquakes, although no serious damage, but the Melbourne metropolitan area because the building shaking people are very frightened.

Responsible for carrying out observation and prediction of seismic activity of the Center for Science in the Earth Australia (Geoscience Australia) pointed out that this 's seismic intensity scale of 4.6, epicenter located in south-east of Melbourne, 90 kilometers Area (Korumburra).

Center for Science in the Earth Australia said that after the earthquake, the Center's Media Center and the Australian Bureau of Meteorology are receiving a large number of people concerned about the phone; However, Victoria's emergency ambulance service organizations, so far, apart from sporadic reports of residential damage, and there were no reports of any serious damage.

Center for Science in the Earth Australia staff Schneider (John Schneider) said that it was following the 1996 Melbourne region 5 on the Richter scale earthquake, the local felt earthquakes uncommon.

The United States lost carbon olfactory satellite

2009-03-07T01:40:00.000-08:00

The United States first used to detect atmospheric carbon dioxide content of the Earth and its satellite distribution map drawn on the 24th due to launch failures and crashed into the sea near the Antarctic

According to Xinhua News Agency, the United States's first electric specific detection of the Earth and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration of greenhouse gases for such a comprehensive distribution map drawn on the 24th satellite launch failure due to fall into the sea near the Antarctic.

The United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) said that the launch in-orbit Carbon Observer (OCO), that is odorless carbon satellite preparation period of up to 8 years, the satellite crashed the relevant personnel of depression.

It is learned that NASA will set up a special committee to investigate olfactory carbon causes of the failure of satellite launching.

Separation failure

The Associated Press reports, This is NASA since September 2001 the first time since launching a major failure of mission. The entire satellite project cost 280 million U.S. dollars.

NASA launch director Chuck ‧ Sandoval described the failure of the scientific community extremely disappointed.

In accordance with the United States "New York Times" that Taurus XL rocket's third grade seven seconds after ignition, the rocket fairing the front of the failure isolation and arrows, with the result that is located under the fairing of the satellite can not be released into space.

Agence France-Presse reported, this is the first time for NASA to launch satellites using Taurus rocket. Olfactory carbon project manager Brenton Wheeler Shi say that in the past to launch the process of fairing has never been a problem.

Worse

According to NASA official website introduction, scientists had looked forward to using the thinner carbon 』satellite to collect information to help answer a series of questions, including the location of emission sources of carbon dioxide emissions, such as geographical distribution.

Carbon olfactory satellite hence the name. Its failure to make full z American scientific community criticized the efforts of NASA Earth observation also casts a shadow.

The United States National Academy of Sciences in 2007 warned that the Earth NASA research project has been in danger to study less and less ad hoc, the gradual aging of the relevant satellite.

This month, U.S. President Barack Obama ‧ economic stimulus plan put in 400 million U.S. dollars for NASA scientific research project. The Associated Press quoted NASA Science Department is responsible for weiler person as saying: 『money all u _ Bali earth science research. 』

Members of the National Academy of Sciences, Columbia University Professor Ruth ‧ de Vries said: 『very sorry, when we are trying to push back on track when the Earth observation, but the accident happened. 』

NASA used to study under a climate change satellite honor its launch scheduled for this summer, but this program will be thinner carbon investigate the causes of the accident have been suspended before.

Copy the satellite?

The Associated Press reported that carbon olfactory satellite launch fails, NASA is facing a problem is to not to recycling, or copy a thinner carbon .

Olfactory carbon members of a special team of Colorado State University, USA Professor Graeme Stephens ‧ that many members of task force is urging NASA to do so.

Will have serious impact on climate research

On the 24th, the United States carbon olfactory satellite due to launch vehicle failures in the Antarctic waters near the crash, which French climate experts believe that the accident will cause serious impact on climate research.

United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, vice chairman of France Jean ‧ Joinet Purcell told the media that if the carbon olfactory satellite successfully launched, it can be launched in January this year, Japan's greenhouse gas satellites simultaneously No. breathing observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, for climate scientists to provide the overall greenhouse gas distribution and monitoring the process of change, therefore, the failure of the launch will result in related research is very adversely affected.

French research center on Climate Science Laboratory experts on the 26th Peter ‧ Reyna pointed out that although the respiratory launch filled the southern hemisphere oceans and tropical regions of Africa a blank observation of greenhouse gases, but its observation capabilities and the scope of carbon thinner than .

Hong Kong and the United States Institute scholars measured glaciers 3400 years ago the climate

2009-03-07T01:36:00.000-08:00

Antarctic ago, originally was not world of ice and snow, but due to climate change, the moment has become a frozen desert. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Hong Kong assistant professor Liu Zhonghui, United America, Yale University, Harvard University and several other scholars in conducting research are leading to global cooling at that time the rapid expansion of Antarctic glaciers of important reasons, the study will be more up-to-date authoritative journal "Science" ( Science) published.

Served in the Department of geology and geophysics at Yale University, last year joined the University of Hong Kong Liu Hui for the thesis of the first author of the study in the United States two years ago by the National Natural Science Foundation and Yale University was financed, he and Mark Pagani, Yale University scholar and David Zinniker, Harvard University, Sunita R. Shah and Ann Pearson number of scholars, such as cooperative research.

Zhonghui Liu said that before temperature data, there is no record of the study are the biggest obstacle, so they are organic compounds in marine sediments through the distribution of characteristics, then the projection of global sea surface temperature and found that at the time of the high latitudes temperature, than previous studies estimated temperature, higher than at least ten degrees Celsius, while the glacier expansion in the process of sea surface temperature, but also significantly reduced by about five degrees Celsius.

He also said that, at present, computer technology is still difficult to accurately project the Earth's greenhouse climate change, because of system is mainly to adjust the content of carbon dioxide projections, should be added to other factors, trust can be a more accurate result.

Kepler earth can not alone for us to look for a special planet

2009-03-07T01:34:00.001-08:00

March 5, United States Air

Days Board (NASA) will launch the Kepler spacecraft to complete the first category to look for extrasolar habitable planets mission.

According to the schedule, the evening of March 5, local time 22:48 (GMT at 3:48 on March 6), Kepler -2 detectors will be aboard the Delta launch vehicle, from the United States is located in southeastern Florida Florida's Cape Canaveral launch.

This is the United States Space Agency arrangements designed to look for the first time, type of mission to rock the planet, NASA Kepler detectors are available for the discovery of planets similar to Earth's environment a key factor in the efforts.

The number of extrasolar planet? Almost no answer until now because of the current astronomical observations are not sufficient to detect these "special" planet.

However, with the March 5, 2009 the United States Space Agency (NASA) Kepler Space Telescope into space, we will be behind these "special" Planet of the veil.

The original methods of observation flawed

"We all hope that many of these planets exist," "Kepler," the Chief Scientist, NASA Ames Research Center Lucky (William Borucki) said, "If there is lot of extrasolar Earth's existence, then you may have a lot of lives. there is perhaps even extraterrestrial civilization is waiting for us and their contact. "

By ground-based telescopes on the observation of gravitational lensing, and in 2006 launched the "coronation" extraterrestrial planetary probes of planetary observation Ling stars have been found two slightly larger than the Earth extrasolar planets. The two rocks may be composed of the quality of the planets around the Earth several times, all around the red dwarf star Gliese 581 rotation. Both have at least a Livable zone is located, but very close to the edge of Livable belt, it is still difficult to determine their surface if there is any liquid water exist.

The crux of the matter found that the current method of planets. Most of the extrasolar planets are through "Velocity" method was found, through looking for stellar spectra may be due to the planet's gravitational effects arising from the cyclical nature of sports signals to detect them. However this method is the quality of the Earth and similar planets are not sensitive to low-quality.

Two major advantages, more sensitive observations

"Kepler" is designed to look for these "lost" world. It through the monitoring of more than 100,000 stars of the cyclical changes in brightness, will be able to appear in the stars and planets, "Kepler" between the time to discover it.

"Kepler" will be far away from the Earth's orbit around the sun turning in order to avoid interference from the Earth Observing it. This makes it at three and a half years uninterrupted observation area with one days. In contrast, "coronation" is rotating around the Earth, the Earth will be blocked so it's attention. At the same time in order to avoid the effects of sunlight on the observation, so "coronation" of the district with the longest one days duration was only five months of continuous observation.

Because of the monitoring objectives can be a long time, "Kepler" at least three times to see a one-year orbit cycle of Planet Ling stars. This is to confirm these cyclical case Strict observation for at least the required number, which can rule out the brightness of stars such as interfering factors such as their own fluctuation.

At the same time, "Kepler" will than the "coronation" is much more sensitive. Its effective diameter of 95 centimeters, are "coronation" of 3.5 times. This makes the size of it can be seen only half of the Earth, and Mars is almost big planet.

Telescope twice a week contact

Stonehenge from the University of Colorado City Campus Laboratory of Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) of 20 students and 16 groups of experts, will study at the University of Colorado LASP Space Technology Park manipulation Kepler telescope building at Florida Cape Canaveral launch.

LASP mission operation and data analysis director said that the University of Colorado at boulder City Campus mission operations team is the co-operation and Bell companies. Bell created a Kepler telescope --- the main components of a one meter diameter Large Telescope and many photosensitive microchip as well as the Kepler telescope flight systems and the operation of this mission to support the work.

Once the Kepler telescope, enter the stage of planet hunting, LASP Kepler mission control team will contact this week, the two telescopes to monitor the above with the apparatus, including sensors, battery positioning control system, voltage and temperature as well as load instruction. Possehl said that the telescope will be so point to the Earth once per month, the data "dump" to the United States Space Agency are located in the Earth near the equator of the deep space network, and then, these data will be transferred to the University of Colorado boulder City Campus Atmospheric and Space Physics Laboratory, the transmission will continue to work sometimes 36-48 hours.

Then, LASP these data to the United States Academy of Sciences, Baltimore, Space Telescope, and then by the NASA Ames Research Center of the scientific analysis of data.

Look forward to, "Kepler," respondents

No one knows, "Kepler," able to detect the number of stars and planets similar to earth, but found substantial and Jupiter-sized extrasolar planets should be not to mention the. Around 15%% of the category of solar-type stars will have planets wood. Jupiter necessary because of the formation of many substances, so said: "We consider the formation of Jupiter than in many rare earth."

No matter, "Kepler" discovered what would make detection of extrasolar planets into the next era. If terrestrial planets are ubiquitous, so future plans will be examined in detail whether one of aerobic existence and life, as well as other relevant evidence.

NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) are separately assess the "terrestrial planet finder" and "Darwin" program, which plans to launch in 2020 for the observation of stars is located in zone Livable planet. One of the main objectives of those who are observing the planet through the atmosphere light spectrum, in order to find and life-related chemical composition of oxygen and other signals.

Finally whether these plans will succeed depends entirely on the "Kepler." If eventually found terrestrial planets are ubiquitous, so in the next 15 years will certainly set off a careful study of these planets boom. However, if the "Kepler" Livable finally found with the terrestrial planets are very rare, then our observation can be at the limits of its resources may not fit the objectives of our research. The detection of terrestrial planets more distant plans, not only technically there are still a lot of obstacles, but also necessary to take a long time.

Now history, at least give us a chance to know extrasolar terrestrial planets are are rare. Ever since Copernicus put the Earth from the pull down the center of the universe after the Earth's position in the universe "deteriorating." But the Earth is one of the many planets in one, and in the discovery of hundreds of stars planets around other stars also appear after the solar system is not so special.

Whether the prevalence of the universe, the size and characteristics of both the Earth and similar planets? "Kepler" will answer for us.

■ Related Links

Europe's "coronation" extraterrestrial planetary probe

In the "Kepler" space telescope is focused on the discovery of the first extrasolar terrestrial planets real time, and should not be forgotten that previous plans. French construction of the "coronation" extraterrestrial planets discovered so far detector the smallest extrasolar planets.

Distance of 390 light-years distant, we Exo7b are the diameter of the Earth twice. Although it does not know exactly the quality and composition, but its density and the type of rock similar to terrestrial planets.

Its orbit is very close to the star, the public switch to cycle only 20 hours, are known to the public and to the planet's fastest. Its surface temperature is over 1000 ℃, can not carry life, but in this system is also very likely have other planets exist.

Benefited from the detailed design process and, of course, some luck, "coronation" performance beyond the expected. In the "coronation" of the data back hair and several hundred others left to interesting signals of large-scale follow-up to the observation and study of ground-based telescopes.

"Coronation" of the findings support the existence near the earth extrasolar terrestrial planets of the mind, which "Kepler" is concerned is good news. And "Kepler" may be able to find more other earth.

Heated debate between scientists and experts in civil seismic line

2009-03-07T01:31:00.001-08:00

Chinese Seismic Network Center Chief Forecaster Sun Hung:

I hope there is a smooth communication channels

『Still a lot of people from the celestial bodies to study the seismic point of view. Not long ago, a person came from Wuhan, get this book and I want to explore the celestial bodies and the relationship between seismic. I said, already has several people holding this view, several people also out of the book, I suggest you a few people together to discuss the issue. 』Sun Hung said.

Since the proof of one plus two, after a lot of people every year to the math by writing letters, claiming to solve the 1 +1 = 2 problem, this letter, the Chinese Academy of Sciences Mathematics close two sacks each year.

『Li Wei also said that normally the data collected is very limited information, thus limiting the level of research. If instead of "Beijing Science and Technology reported that" provide a platform, never thought of seismic experts can communicate with. 』Sun Hung says, these people, although the level of science enthusiasts have been mixed, in which these scientific enthusiasts, there is a lot of people's views are very innovative. While they may in a particular area of research is not bad than the experts, some even more solid. If we can take full advantage of their research, give play to their enthusiasm for the work of the Academy of Sciences will provide a lot of help.

Channels do not communicate because of smooth, easy to a lot of civil science enthusiasts and experts of the Academy of Sciences by the formation of a misunderstanding. Sun Hung said that the drought appears, give us call on someone. I received such a phone call asking: Why do not you study the drought? But they do not understand, according to our research, climate and seismic vs at the relationship between, not the impacts of climate change activities in the Earth, but the activities of the Earth affect the climate. How do we communicate?

Sun Hung said that a lot of experts are experienced by non-governmental science lovers plugging things in the office. I now have a large part of the time exposure to these civil science enthusiasts on. However, a person's ability to me was really very limited, and as a scientific worker, out of time to be able to make these things very few people again, I would like to be able to have a smooth flow of communication channels.

Popular Science, Fuzhou, Japan, in the magical joy dock, the computer system in accordance with the viewer's hand video will appear on the screen image of the corresponding animal

Non-mainstream, grassroots science destiny?

『Civil science enthusiasts to small inventors, small innovative start, select some of the knowledge do not ask for much, the program is not strong disciplines, such as natural history, and some new species is discovered amateur plant enthusiasts. 』

Beijing Planetarium Hoi Wing, deputy director of the King told "Beijing Science and Technology reported that" a lot of civil science enthusiasts are without solid foundation, before the knowledge and study the work and carry out scientific research is not relevant to the project. Because they are not professional scientists and technicians have received systematic and standardized education subject knowledge, as well as the basic formal scientific training, and so in civil science enthusiasts in the area of concern is often not a solid foundation of knowledge.

The mathematics and science often requires the accumulation of knowledge step by step. Such as primary school after graduation can be up, after graduating from middle school to college can be. Only by virtue of the mathematical knowledge of primary and secondary schools are unable to verify the Goldbach conjecture; only school of physical knowledge, can not open the gate theory of relativity. The research is not a solid foundation of knowledge, will hold back scientific research.

China University of Geosciences think Jin-Zhong Sun, for lovers of civil science and scientific research in a relatively high threshold. Seismic prediction has now used satellite remote sensing technology, GPS positioning technology. Other areas of study required a variety of instruments and laboratory equipment. And civil science enthusiasts is very difficult to get to these machines and equipment. A lot of civil science enthusiasts are very persistent: Wuhan Li Yuming Farmer at bankrupt, self-made submarines; Sichuan Farmer Cao book homemade plane; Anhui peasant DU Tatsu flying saucer made fund-raising; Tianjin peasant debt should verify Goldbach Conjecture. These non-governmental science and enthusiasts share a common characteristic, that is, put all the scientific research as sustenance, non-utilitarian point heart, which the scientific spirit should be protected at the same time to maximize their talents.

American Society for Biochemistry introduction Fang doctor, rarely seen everywhere in the United States to promote their own major scientific discovery 』『 civil scientists, but the United States has a lot of serious science enthusiasts. The scientific community also used a variety of ways to encourage the exchange of scientists and science enthusiasts, cooperation, as part of the work of popular science.

Scientists under the guidance of the United States science enthusiasts sometimes make scientific discoveries. For example: elementary math problems. Elementary math and some small issues to be identified and solved, and to solve these problems do not need to have too deep maths training, relying mainly on the reasoning abilities are tight, which was left a space science enthusiasts. In addition, the natural history are a range of professional and amateur between the disciplines, apart from professional training, more emphasis on patient and meticulous observation, under the guidance of experts, amateurs can also participate in the research. Such as the United States there is a set of ad hoc observation of birds, from amateur expert guidance on how to observe and record the activities of birds, collected the information available for further expert analysis, research. In addition, the discovery of asteroids, comets, discover new species, new fossils and so on all the samples because a lot of quantity, science enthusiasts can play their role.

Jin-Zhong Sun also said that there is a lot of foreign fans will be civil scientific research organizations of their own bodies, or even web magazines and so on. They will hold regular exchanges of activities and some can also be involved in a number of international exchange activities. To address the problem of internal civil science enthusiasts with the Academy of Sciences of the problem of poor communication experts, first of all lovers of civil science and research fields should be set up according to their own societies and organizations, such as Astronomical Society, the study of math, earthquake prediction Society, the study of the theory of relativity. Then communicate through an internal study to jointly improve. Academician Yuan Longping have been made to develop "innovative promotion and protection of civil law." Government to set up civil science enthusiasts and experts in communication channels and exchange platform for civil science enthusiasts have the opportunity to communicate equally with experts, develop a scientific way of thinking, it also brings many experts point of information. At the same time, civil science enthusiasts to small inventors, small innovative start, select some of the knowledge do not ask for much, do not have a strong program of subjects.

JING Hai-rong think, it is necessary to set up non-governmental scientific experts and enthusiasts communicate platform, must be over z tumultuous T conditions: first of all government departments from the capital, on support staff; followed by non-governmental science enthusiasts also enhance their own knowledge of the basic study to master the scientific way of thinking, to increase scientific and technological workers and occupational common language; Finally, scientists have to itself and decide on many enthusiasts to listen to the voices of civil science, and actively take part in science enthusiasts and civil communication.

Guochang countries to promote savings minus carbon

2009-03-07T01:29:00.000-08:00

Days only in March, the climate in southern Taiwan is not lost on the hot dog days, the Earth really is sick! In order to save the Earth, Kaohsiung Guochang of students into the country minus the carbon saving research and practice, on their "Energy Survey" courses, visit the green building, visit the Public Works Museum special exhibition of energy-saving minus carbon, but also hand-made bio-diesel, Designed architecture, such as heat, in order to slow global warming to make a power of thin cotton.

"I have heard that ... I heard .... rising sea, Kaohsiung is about to drown, forming Shoushan island, return to Taipei Taipei .... the Great Lakes as an upward trend in temperature, the end of this century the average temperature will increase by 6.5 degrees .. .... more greenhouse gases released from the permafrost ... "This is Guochang State Science Teacher CHEN Hui-ling blog section of the introduction.

In order to guide students on the natural sciences, in particular knowledge of ecological sciences are interested in, and then to care about our earth, CHEN Hui-ling at Yahoo! Yahoo blog has set up a "student interactive grid", a record about the country in the science of studying everything, she told If you want to open up ideas of students, we usually come to this blog Teacher test questions! The results of January 12 last year, opened cell, less than a month to break the cumulative number of 10,000, showing the degree of welcome.

Team teaching, one of teachers said that Mrs Teacher this website to provide students on the key link freely answer questions, or platform, in fact, easy to answer difficult questions, to encourage students to questions because questions are more difficult, students questions, but also Writing to be responsible for analysis and did not fully understand, fully together students can not be a good topic.

Last summer,name, CHEN Hui-ling, such as Teacher of "energy-saving heat-e up" plan to take part in the Kaohsiung City Education and evaluation of creativity, about 20 students to enroll for the teacher to lead students to start series against the energy crisis study has two main First, open source, first cutting. The students first class, there is the basic concept of energy after, and then look for and visit the Green building, written report of experiences, but also to the workers to visit the museum special exhibition of carbon minus energy, experience, or report you want.

Implementation are two main courses, salad oil and sodium hydroxide First, the use of bio-diesel refinery to enable students to finally have their own life first bottle wood biomass oil; In addition, they have to use a variety of materials to design the construction of heat building, although only a small model house, but the students are very serious, beautifully finished and many changes, many have reduced the effect of hot, the best may be cooling of 2.6 degrees. The creativity of this year plans to show the fruits of education come to the fore, access to the country in the group "Kaohsiung easy up" an award of excellence, it can be said to retain that.

"Kepler" will be launched within three years or will find extraterrestrial "earth"

2009-03-07T01:28:00.000-08:00

The United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NA "Scientific American"), the Kepler satellite, Beijing is expected to be March 7 at 11:48 noon launched, will the search for extraterrestrial life to turn a new leaf. This to sixteenth and seventeenth-century German astronomer Johannes Kepler (Johannes Kepler) named the exploration program, will be used for more than three years time to study a group of stars, looking for the brightness of stars on weak cyclical darken - This is around there is a planet around the star signs. Although astronomers have been using this technology (together with other technologies) in the discovery of extrasolar planets more than 300 stars, but the quality is greater, the distance of stars very near the "hot Jupiter", they show a very high temperature, the fundamental not suitable for survival of life. Kepler is the advantage of satellite is that it is carried by very sensitive equipment, able to detect smaller, colder, more suitable for life to survive, more similar to the Earth of alien planets.

Carnegie Institute of Washington at the United States engaged in the star and planet formation research planetary scientists, Kepler Science Team member (Alan Boss) at a new book, said the mission will look for outside solar system to open a gate to life. He said that if lucky, Kepler satellite should be able to prove that only exist in the Milky Way on a number of one billion planetary habitat for life, and in the whole universe, and similar to the Milky Way galaxy has at least ten (10 of the 21 th power), many that can not be exhaustive. We take on this new book of this topic, the Boss had an exclusive interview.

The following is a record after finishing the interview:

"Scientific American": Your new book called "crowded universe," (The Crowded Universe). What is the meaning of the title?

The main thrust of this book is to prove why someone would say that the universe may be the existence of life everywhere. Me in this book put forward the view that we already know of the Earth may be an incredible Ordinary - each a star similar to the sun perhaps have a few planets like the Earth, or similar. At least in my opinion, if there is so many lives for the survival of the planet 50 billion to exist on, most of the planet began to develop something on Change is inevitable.

If the planet has emerged on the water, some comets carry amino acids and other interesting life can evolve constantly falling into the hands of one of chemical substances, how to prevent these things can develop into some form of death?

Life is a very stubborn things, willing to be able to stay at any of the places to take root, I think as long as one has the opportunity to be the origin of life in any place. Spielberg may not necessarily have the kind of movie where the dwarves, but there must be some similar archaea or bacterial organisms. They will produce and release oxygen and gases like methane, which are in the atmosphere we can see. We may be unable to determine whether there is a planet on the lives of intelligence or dinosaurs, but at least we can determine whether there exist mucus bacteria. Therefore, we intend to go looking for mucoid strains.

Suspected fake moon landing 40 years is not bad 22% of Americans believe that a fraud

2009-02-23T06:03:00.001-08:00

Believe that the moon landing in 1969 is purely American lie of the ratio from 6% of 1979 soared to more than 22 percent now. Show at least 60 million Americans have a "moon landing conspiracy theory" believers, think someone landing on the moon pictures are in the Nevada desert filming the military restricted area.

The United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) will be in July this year to commemorate the Apollo 11 manned lunar landing spacecraft 40th anniversary, a purely lunar landing hoax about the conspiracy theory is also more and more rife and rampant. 1979 has only 6% of Americans believe that the Apollo 11 lunar landing forgery, 20 years later increased to 11 percent, a more recent survey found that more than 22% increase.

July 1969 Apollo 11 spacecraft to use than a modern cell phone also "original" navigation technology, carrying astronauts Neil Armstrong (Neil Armstrong) and (Buzz Aldrin) first landed on the moon.

Since 1979, however, began to spread all over the world "conspiracy theory" ︰ purely Apollo 11 lunar landing hoax, NASA lunar landing provided by the lens back in a few months ago on the film in advance Well, lunar images are in Nevada desert state closed military zone "51 Zone" (Area 51) shooting.

A conspiracy theorist to believe that the United States because of this super-concocted fraud, from the following motives and realities:

1. American wanted in the space race to beat the former Soviet Union. President Kennedy was assassinated 10 years ago boasted the Moon, difficult to recover the team of four horses. NASA at the time the national budget was 40 billion yuan, it is imperative that the people trust the money is not wasted. And look all over the world in only succeed and not to fail.

2.1969 in the summer, the former Soviet Union only one month is necessary to launch its own manned lunar landing spacecraft. At that time, the United States Government is plunged into the Vietnam morass, fake moon landing hoax transferable American's attention.

3. 1969 lunar science and technology is very original, is simply not possible for the success of manned lunar landing, can only "fake." Apollo 11 spacecraft computer even today's personal computers are not such as, when the satellite positioning skills are now used to find a way not qualify, but still able to find much in the 250,000 miles only a few square yards of a quiet sea? Even if President Bush announced its intention to return to the moon, NASA said that a further 11 years to do so.

Let NASA is deeply embarrassing, and even have been involved in the design of the Apollo spacecraft, former‧ Engineer Bill (Bill Kaysing) and a former NASA Astronaut Brian ‧(Brian OLeary), do not believe the American board on the moon. the Apollo program was a consultant, and even have doubts about him was shocking.

said that he was the most do not understand is why the moon landing vehicle quietly, totally can not hear the engine sound? Could it be the only movie studio props, a few wires were slowly "landing"? With his understanding of science and technology at that time, he did not consider the possibility of landing on the moon. Even if the land on the moon successfully, the chances to come back alive, only 0.0017%, equivalent to dead.

In addition to NASA's fake moon landing conspiracy theory, there are more incredible claims: Armstrong is "the first person to land on the moon," he and two other astronauts did the success of the moon in 1969. But then technology simply can not put their safety back to earth, so the United States in order to honor their sacrifice on the moon, the safe return of the Earth are the U.S. government long ago found the secret of the "counterfeit substitute."

Photo Kai suspicious person

NASA for "false believers" (Hoax Believers, HB) laughed, but released in 1969 on the 10,000 in 1972 to land on the moon mission photos. HB Meng hunt for bugs in the photographs, especially some of the most attractive light suspicion.

HB pointed out that the photo shows towards the lens, can be seen from the shadow of the sun to turn their backs on him. However, it was surprising that his predecessor had bright white, even the space filled with brightly colored American flag are obviously for someone in front of him lighting.

HB also queried, why step on the moon astronauts will leave behind sand footprint, weighs 10 tons of lunar vehicles leave any traces? Even when the moon vehicles circled the ground slowly decline, the jet did not actually open any of blowing sand?

When Armstrong and HB look plug on the Moon when the flag on the ground, one can not help in an uproar: the national flag there is not even a shadow! They further found that astronauts, lunar landing vehicle and the shadow of the rock has , some east, some west. This is only one possibility: have a number of lighting around the scene.

Scientists dispel doubts

NASA scientists are ridiculous for these queries. They reminded the HB, the moon is not the Earth, scientific principles can not be fully applicable, in particular, are light. Not because of the moon's atmosphere, the light can not be extended, but it has great space refraction, so it seems very strange.

NASA said that because of bright sunlight on the moon in particular, refraction space also wide and therefore Astronaut cameras and the naked eye could not see the stars, photos show the dark sky.

Scientists pointed out that the moon did not air. In a vacuum state, the 3000 pounds of sand on the jet and land on the moon car wheels indifferent. Instead, one person trampled boots, footprints appear immediately.

As to why the shadow of the direction of different flickering? NASA said that this was because the three-dimensional image to twice the space will create a perspective distortion. Together with the surface of the moon will light refraction Department has always been to go back, resulting in no shadow of the Stars and Stripes.

Two years ago, a television reporter asked 78-year-old face-to-face, it is necessary to take the Bible, swear him landing on the moon is not false. Journalist anger hit punched nose, almost legal action. HB think this is false as evidenced by landing on the moon, after all, a 40-year secrecy too much pressure.

HB said that the greatest evidence of false claims that are human landing on the moon, the moon every night for over 30 years even though the sky is no longer pegged to touch the moon. So one would naturally say that the progress of science and technology more and more, and then land on the moon should be easy.

Waterspouts

2009-02-18T04:32:00.001-08:00

Tornadoes and other weather does not confuse the vortex, such as dust volume, they usually do not come from a thunderstorm, are completely different forms of natural phenomena, in accordance with the United States National Weather Service tornado-related FAQ, a waterspout is a tornado in the water -- - usually means that the water of non-super tornado monomer. Dragon roll is usually along the southeastern coast of the United States, particularly in southern Florida and the Gulf of Mexico within the reef, and may appear in the ocean, bays and lakes all over the world. Waterspouts are tornadoes in the definition of a. Its destructive than the most powerful tornado prairie small and weak, but they are still very dangerous. Dragon boat roll can be blown over, damaging the vessel, when struck the land when there is more damage and killed. When the water spouts are likely to produce or in coastal waters have been visible when the United States National Weather Service will often issue special marine warnings, or when the water spouts to the land mobile when a tornado warning issued

Tornado Climatology

2009-02-18T04:31:00.002-08:00

Clearly the United States suffered more than any other country, and including the devastating tornado hit. However, the tornado actually happen in everywhere in the world; the regions affected by the number of statistics, the world's largest tornado happened region, is the United Kingdom, in particular, for even in England. New Zealand and Uruguay also has a small part of a strong tornado activity. In Canada, an average of 80 tornadoes occur each year, 2 people were killed and 20 others injured and led to loss of tens of millions of dollars. The recent killings of tornadoes in July 4, 2000 attacks in Canada Alberta Lake pine needles, resulting in 11 deaths.

On average, the United States suffered 100,000 thunderstorms each year, more than 1000 tornado hit, killing around 50 people were killed. The United States has recorded the most deadly tornadoes occurred in March 18, 1925, crossed the south-eastern Missouri, southern Illinois and northern Indiana Tri-State tornado, resulting in 695 deaths. In the day more than 6 is considered a tornado outbreak tornadoes. In April 3, 1974, history has recorded the largest outbreak of tornadoes has 148 tornadoes, including the emergence of six F5 (class) and 23 F4 (level) of the tornado; nicknamed the "super outbreak." Another strong storm similar lines are Pam Sunday tornado outbreak, which in April 11, 1965 attacked the central and western United States.

Tornado classification

2009-02-18T04:31:00.001-08:00

The intensity of tornadoes are from "Fujita Pearson Tornado grade" decision (see Fujita series). Intensity may be high-resolution Doppler radar wind speed data or structural damage from the empirical data compared with the works to be. Similarly, attention and should not describe the intensity of any size and width of the tornado.

When bad weather or when coming prediction when a series of Zhuifeng family often go looking for a tornado to remain vigilant and inform the local meteorological agency. In the United States, skywarn software-measuring device, usually on behalf of the local Sheriff to complete a similar role. In addition, some individuals, like the famous storm tracer, favorite track thunderstorms and tornadoes that they go into much real and scientific aspects.

Thunderstorms tracer much try to make a probe into a tornado coming his way, the aim of analyzing its internal structure, but since 1990, only five succeeded in throwing the needle inside.

Tornadoes common sense and security

2009-02-18T04:30:00.000-08:00

According to Environment Canada data, tornado blowing directly over the chances for the 1200 death of one extreme. Some people may amend the era or region, but the actual possibility of even lower. Tornado does a year in economic and material caused millions of dollars in losses, unemployment and casualties.

Annually in the beginning of tornado season, in the tornado area schools and the media told the public sector to spend time hazard and how education can improve the survival rate in the tornado. In the United States, people have often been recommended buy NOAA weather radios. They are relatively inexpensive, only the current 20 U.S. dollars spent, it will receive the United States National Weather Bureau (National Weather Service) issued a weather warning of the danger. Alarm at the same time on the radio and television broadcast, the majority of societies have civil defense alarm, in a tornado is about to consider will be activated prior to arrival.

Tornado warning in the release, all members of the public be notified to the refuge area. In most buildings, if possible, recommend to find the central room with no windows or below ground corridor. If a tornado hit the building, in respect of the possession in the interior of the people, can lead to substantial debris Down, it is proposed that squatting in front of solid beam, or hiding under sturdy furniture. However, the tornado to make such as when a mobile home such as light building had sustained heavy casualties. In this housing residents will be notified before a tornado evacuated from their homes, looking for more solid shelter, regardless of their travel to the designated safe haven or a friend's home nearby. In some areas, storm cellar is also a refuge for people.

When the tornado struck, the vehicle situation is extremely dangerous. If the tornado is visible, long distance, and the current traffic, then you can from the tornado path, methods are straight-line path along with the tornado at right angles to the direction of mobile. Otherwise, please try to quickly and safely park their vehicles in the line outside (even if ex post facto from the soil to find out your car than it is to stay in better on the road caused the accident), and looking for solid buildings or trenches as a bunker. Remember: in any case, be sure not to close when a tornado left in the car. In the strong wind caused by a tornado, no vehicles are very easily be rolled up and thrown.

Some people choose to in a storm shelter under the large bridge, but those places are not the best shelter. Normandy is located in Oklahoma's National Weather Service, have done a report for discussion at May 3, 1999 Oklahoma tornado occurred in the attack, the land bridge as a cover body uses. At that time a land bridge has three tornadoes in Oklahoma City on the route, each bridge has at least one person died in a tornado. Bridge building in a variety of forms, and many of which fly in strong wind and the fragments before and will not provide any effective protection. In addition, because of people under the bridge or the bridge next to free parking caused congestion, is likely to impede other road vehicles, thereby indirectly deprived latecomers the opportunity to escape.

What is a squall line?

2009-02-18T04:27:00.001-08:00

Strong gusts are mean. Squall line (squallline) are by a number of strong thunderstorm convection cell array composed of one narrow line of strong convective weather belt life than the average cell length thunderstorms, usually can be maintained 12 ~ 24 hours, in the horizontal spatial distribution of about 200 km.

Based on past observational data analysis, the squall line system, often there will be thunder and lightning, heavy rain, strong winds, hail, tornadoes and other severe weather phenomena, after the passage of the squall line will have a clear cold air, making the temperature suddenly dropped, and there will be significant changes in wind direction .

Icon 7, seven shares radar echo map, which line the narrow band is the strong echo squall line.

● how the formation of squall lines?

In Taiwan near the squall line occurred in the spring with the plum rainy season during the cold season, when the turn of the atmosphere in a relatively unstable, when the warm air when cold and dry air, its interface can be triggered by "squall line" the emergence of .

Most of the squall line and cold front-related activities, mainly in the ground before the cold front 100 ~ 500 km of warm areas, but sometimes in the front or rear front Front happen, sometimes, the squall line and frontal rain band itself is very difficult distinction to make.

How the formation of tornadoes?

2009-02-18T04:26:00.002-08:00

Whether land or sea dragon roll, and its formation conditions are very similar, basically the amount must have spin and have a very unstable air disturbances, or hot and humid air and cold air radiolysis intense cooperation, and, therefore, tornadoes common in the temperate mid-latitude cyclone (extratropicalcyclone) and strong convection in the vicinity of thunderstorms.

According to National Taiwan University Professor Wang Chongyue 1982 study, the formation of a tornado in Taiwan to squall line (squallline), such as typhoons and the southwest air current caused by a maximum of 3 categories, with Category 3 of the most destructive. Today (2007) in April 18 occurred in the Tainan area of tornadoes, the Department caused by the squall line.

Which country most tornadoes?

2009-02-18T04:26:00.001-08:00

The world's tornadoes are the most places the United States, primarily in the United States in central and western Great Plains (including Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Missouri and Illinois, etc.), because the west side of the Rocky Mountains from blowing dry air , the south side of the Gulf of Mexico has the warm air blowing, the two share the results of flow intersection, making the atmosphere very unstable in the region, forming the so-called tornado corridor.

Statistical data show that the United States happened 700 times the average annual volume of LU Long, and Florida, an annual average of 40-50 times happened the Dragon Vol.

The United States because of the frequent occurrence of a tornado, it attaches great importance to tornado forecasting, when the radar data show a "hook-shaped echo," the meteorologists will have to closely monitor and timely warnings to remind people to do a good job protection measures.

How strong a tornado wind?

2009-02-18T04:25:00.001-08:00

Associated with a tornado because the wind is too strong, the general wind speed measurement devices have often been destroyed, it is difficult to measure the reliability. However, according to the degree of damage to buildings, as well as the dusty objects hitting power to estimate its wind speed roughly 100 meters per second, and sometimes as high as 200 meters per second. Even if the invasion of Taiwan with the calendar year compared to the strong typhoon, near the typhoon center is also the maximum wind speed rarely exceeded 80 meters per second, the visible tornado typhoon is much larger than the rotation of wind power.

What would cause a tornado disaster?

2009-02-18T04:24:00.000-08:00

Tornadoes are usually accompanied by strong winds, heavy showers, hail, lightning and other phenomena, by passing through along the tornado path, common trees were uprooted, people, vehicles, livestock will be rolled up, the structure of the poor will be the destruction of buildings and caused by power outage or gas pipeline rupture caused by fire or explosion, etc., so be very severe casualties and losses. Taiwan due to weather and terrain constraints, the smaller tornadoes, relatively minor damage, but tornadoes may occur in the region, remain on guard.

What is tornado

2009-02-18T04:23:00.000-08:00

The English name for tornado, are referring to happened in the bottom or self-cumulonimbus cumulonimbus down to the ground or the sea of strong spin column, the naked eye often see into tube-like funnel cloud or clouds. Happened on land are called LU Long-volume, on the sea for water spouts.

In the atmosphere, the tornado is a small area, the power of a strong and highly destructive air vortex, and its diameter from tens of meters to several hundred meters and the average of about 250 meters. Since the distant look, it seemed a dark gray funnel or trunk, since the cloud base stretching down to the ground, the whole column in itself funnel cloud around the central axis of rapid rotation, and at the same time moving forward. Yun-chu, sometimes hanging in the air reverberating, sometimes lower, and on the ground, the regular place as a serious disaster. Tornado path length, average of about 5-10 km in between, but also record up to 300 kilometers; tornado's life cycle, the shortest less than one minute, but some can be up to several hours, with an average of about 10 minutes.

The causes of tornadoes

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Produce tornadoes are the mother giant cumulonimbus, which dozens of kilometers wide cloud may rise to 16 kilometers altitude. We will pot of cold water heating, that can be found after heating the water will rise, the upper cold water will be lowered, while the sunlight so that the ground temperature, the convection will produce the same phenomenon.

Air resulting in the block of cotton-like white clouds, this is the cumulus, cumulus continue the development of the formation of cumulonimbus. At this point, "latent heat" on the occurrence of an important role.

Plot snow internal heating due to latent heat of constant cloud of air, resulting in a strong updraft.

The so-called "latent heat" (latent heat) is released when water vapor into liquid water, heat, for example, 25 degrees Celsius, 1 grams of water vapor into liquid water with temperature, it will release latent heat of 583 cards. Will boiling water out of the top of the palm of your hand and feel that will be hot heat, that is, small droplets of water vapor into the white at the time of latent heat.

This cumulonimbus with low-temperature drying from the north of the jet stream after the confluence even stronger, so the formation of more clouds tablets, raindrops and ice crystals, but also to latent heat release to create more powerful updraft, and its speed per second and sometimes Tatsu dozens of meters, thus the ground caused by storms, heavy rain, under the hail, thunder and lightning, brought disaster. Cumulonimbus will rotate if it can extend the life, may become a giant cumulonimbus.

Many warm wet south-east wind, and shun the Rocky Mountains along the south boundary of the northwest wind is the dry line. Drying line showing wavy morphology and the formation of vortex in the forthcoming, the wall by the giant cumulonimbus clouds in the occurrence of a tornado.

Following this discovery only after we have seen in movies organizations of "Tornado searcher" and they really can be said to be a pioneer in tornado research. According to results of research on these people, we will have a giant tornado cumulonimbus called "super-balloon" (super cell) in order to breakdown.

Plain threat

The power of the strongest tornadoes happen in China and the United States on the open plain, near the core of a tornado, with winds of around 480 kilometers per hour.

Destruction of traces of

Although the tornado ravaged areas narrow, but the place is devastated by.

For example: upper right map of the United States a small town in Kentucky. Transit in the tornado, some shelter house is almost gone.

Water column

A tornado does not necessarily have taken place on land, the water will cause the formation of a tornado of water. Moved in across the land when the water will lose energy. A tornado formed by the water column is usually limited to the warm season, the main complication in the shallow waters.

Tornado Documentary

** The United States has an annual average of 750 tornadoes, the most commonly issued in the main period between 4-6.

** Fast rotation of the tornado would normally be divided into several smaller tornadoes.

** November 1981, the United Kingdom abnormal 102 small tornado outbreak.

We have not been able to understand the structure of a tornado, because the high risk without accessible and tornadoes are generated in the bottom of a giant cumulonimbus, so can not be observed from above. Howard Mann, who made use of Doppler radar reflection intensity of a tornado is very similar to the level of distribution patterns Typhoon, but Typhoon has hundreds of times in a tornado the size, shape much like the typhoon.

Reflection intensity tornado center is weak, much like the typhoon clear calm eyes, surrounded by a strong reflected wave of the donut-type ring, which is central to strong winds欥powder of sand and fragments, which is equivalent to around a giant typhoon eye cumulonimbus base. Arm ring outside are giant cumulonimbus by the convergence of the airflow around the sand blowing and fragment formation, equivalent to a typhoon brought heavy rain.

Drag under tornado

Heyday period, the upper cumulonimbus with the center of the pressure difference between the increased air flow will be downward drag out, it is "under the gas drag type (emission type)" tornado. Center under the ground after the collision drag airflow around the proliferation of once, and with super airbags airflow convergence encounter this volume at a distance of several hundred meters from the wind center formed donut-type ring updraft area.

by the tornado that strong wind blowing the sand and fragments will be convergence in the donut-type ring and with an increase, this situation will often form a giant tornado. By radar observations of the donut-ring strong reflected wave, we know this is under a tornado-type flow drag, at the same time know it in seconds, speed 70 meters above the speed of rotation to the left.

Tornado not only happen in the United States, China, Southeast Asia, India, Italy and other places have been reports of a tornado disaster. Recently, neighboring Japan also began to pay attention to tornadoes and similar phenomena of abrupt burst under the drag (down bourst), air speed of 4 kilometers more than 4 kilometers below said microburst micro-bourst) and the resulting disaster.

The so-called "drag under abrupt explosion" is over heyday period from cumulonimbus drag generated by airflow under strong collision avoidance into a strong wind after the ground around the phenomenon of proliferation, much like a tornado but the rotation range is less than a tornado, convergence and divergence dispersion larger than a tornado.

May cause abnormal localized disasters, such as the threat of small water spouts water (water-spout), the Gobi desert, the Sahara desert, the Taklimakan Desert and other places of small dust storms (dust devil), the Atlantic hurricane ( hurricane) as well as the invasion of the Pacific typhoons in the West Bank (tyPhoon) and so on.

Increased tornado

Super airbag to the heyday period of growth before the tornado in the updraft like a vacuum cleaner sucked into the ground like material, this is known as the "updraft type (sucked into type)."

At this point sand, fragments, etc. focus on the bottom of a tornado, the air around the cyclone center by the centrifugal force of the impact of central pressure drop.

Greenhouse gases to climate impact

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The impact of greenhouse gases are long-term and global, the impact of suspended particles is short and are regional. Man-made greenhouse gases generated by the greenhouse effect in many areas because of the cooling effect of suspended particles may be underestimated. In such cases, there is a possibility of paradox. Assuming an immediate cessation of human burning of fossil fuels, aerosol content will be immediately dropped from the natural content, and its cooling effect of the role will also stop; and left over from the previous man-made greenhouse gases still continue to play its greenhouse effect, warming the Earth. In such cases, we can not rule out the possibility of global warming rather than the possibility of aggravating.

Scientists not only the uncertain role of suspended particles in the radiation volume size, more uncertainty net effect of its climate. Even if greenhouse gases greenhouse effect coincided with the cooling effect of aerosol balance, a net amount of radiation is zero. Whether they would have no impact on climate? The answer is no. The operation of the climate because the world does not depend on the size of the net amount of radiation. Any one region, because the energy imbalance resulting from disturbance may affect the global climate. For example, the Tibetan Plateau in summer the northern hemisphere are a major heat source, its influence throughout the world. Similarly, any one of the suspended particles in the region caused by the cooling effect of atmospheric disturbances, but also to other areas that may affect the climate.

Scientists suspect that the past century the global average temperature rise with an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases. In theory, this is certainly possible. But if you look at a strict scientific point of view, we can easily find that many of the confusing. For example, mentioned in this chapter aerosol cooling effect, which in the end how strong? The net effect? Another example, when we compare the 18th century, since the concentrations of greenhouse gases and global average temperature curve, we found that although the general trend of the two similar, there are many inconsistencies in the details. For example, after the industrial revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels on the rapid increase, but why the temperature in the late 19th century until a marked increase in? Little Ice Age of the natural impact of climate change? In another example, since the 1950s, rate of increase of greenhouse gases faster, but why the low temperature during 1950-1970?

In addition to climate are countless physical processes by interactions formed. At present, the scientific community on many issues are still not well understood. Based on satellite observation data, the role of clouds of radiation-17Wm-2. That is, if there is no cloud, climate warming may be more. Some changes in cloud cover caused by the volume of radiation have been with considerable warming of greenhouse gases (over the past 100 years for the 2.45 Wm-2). Over the past 10 years through satellite observations, the scientific community on the cloud / radiation increasing the understanding of the relationship, but still limited. Low clouds tend to cool the troposphere, but the high cloud is a warming effect. If carbon dioxide doubling of atmospheric water vapor content may increase, then the distribution of cloud what change? Changes in different types of clouds, the climate may have completely different effects. And the impact of clouds is a lot we do not know much about one of the physical processes.

Amount of radiation

2009-02-16T22:58:00.000-08:00

Human economic activities have created greenhouse gases and suspended particles, the former have a warming effect, while the latter have a cooling effect. Clearly, man-made greenhouse effect may be because the role of aerosol cooling effect, and has been underestimated. Greenhouse gases and suspended particulate characteristics quite different:

(A) produce the greenhouse effect greenhouse gases, aerosols have a cooling effect.

(B) of greenhouse gases have a long lifespan, suspended particles in a very short lifespan.

(C) the distribution of greenhouse gases are uniform, global, and the distribution of suspended particles is uneven regional.

This is because the characteristics of three different greenhouse gases and suspended particles are also very different from the impact. They are the direct effects of changes in the Earth's radiation balance. Scientists calculated the amount of radiation effect (radiative forcing) to assess their direct impact. The long term, without any abnormal interference (such as, air pollution, volcanic eruptions), the Earth's atmosphere should be in a state of radiation balance, that is, zero net radiation (radiation equivalent to the amount of radiation absorbed radiation doses). Once the imbalance in the Earth's atmospheric temperature is bound to increase (if the net amount of radiation is positive) or lower (if, by a negative net radiation), adjust to another until the temperature of the radiation balance. The role of the so-called radiation volume, refers to the atmospheric properties (such as, carbon dioxide content, cloud cover, etc.) change, the corresponding change in the volume of net radiation.

For global (or climate) change, we are most concerned about the troposphere / surface of this system are subject to the volume of radiation. Figure 3-12 are from before the Industrial Revolution to the present, as a result of greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, CFC-11, CFC-12, Figure 3-12b), as well as man-made sulfate aerosol (Figure 3-12a) content changes caused by the volume of radiation. Figure 3-12c is to combine the two into the net after the amount of radiation. Radiation effects of greenhouse gases rather uniform distribution, but mostly in 2.5Wm-2 and between 1Wm-2. Its distribution by temperature, humidity and cloud cover distribution. For example, the value of low-latitude regions more than high latitudes, tropical ocean regions than the western half of the eastern half of the value of large desert areas (such as, sub-) has a relatively large value, and strong tropical convective region (such as, the Western Pacific , South America, Africa) is the value of small.

The role of suspended particles in the radiation level should be very uneven distribution, showing a high degree of regional. Maximum occurred in the eastern United States, Europe, East Asia, South America and South Africa, the West Bank, are man-made pollution in the region more serious. Other areas has not been significantly affected. Current estimates indicate that although the cooling effect of suspended particles can not be ignored, still less than the greenhouse effect greenhouse gases, so the net amount of radiation all over the world is still positive. The net amount of radiation the smallest regions, aerosol cooling effect is most obvious region.

IPCC scientists estimated from 1850 to 1990 between changes in atmospheric composition caused by the volume of radiation. Figure 3-13 in the global and annual average amount of radiation that they think are the best estimate value. Greenhouse gases for 2.45Wm-2, the error range of 15%. Which carbon dioxide is 1.56 Wm-2, methane 0.47 Wm-2, nitrous oxide 014 Wm-2, CFC-11 0.06 Wm-2, CFC-12 0.14 Wm-2, other gases 0.08 Wm-2. Suspended particles for the direct impact of -0.25 ~ -0.9 Wm-2, the indirect impact of 0 ~ -1.5 Wm-2, the two superimposed effect of -0.3 ~ -3 Wm-2. However, because the scientific community and its impact on the suspended particles is still very limited understanding, the estimated value of a large range of error. IPCC scientists pointed out that the role of suspended particles in the radiation volume estimates, the future may still have a substantial amendment.

In recent years, as a result of man-made CFCs damage the ozone, the stratospheric ozone decreased to reduce the absorption of short-wave radiation, stratospheric temperature decline. Colder stratosphere to the troposphere of the long-wave radiation volume also decreased, causing a negative role in the amount of radiation. On the other hand, more short-wave radiation penetrating the stratospheric ozone layer, atmospheric absorption for the troposphere, and its role in capacity coincided with the radiation. Scientists estimate the current negative effects of radiation is larger than the volume of radiation, the net effect of -0.1 ~ -0.2 Wm-2, but the estimated value of the error range considerably. At the same time, because of air pollution, tropospheric ozone has increased year by year with its greenhouse effect is caused by about 0.2 ~ 0.6 Wm-2 is the amount of radiation. During the same period, solar radiation intensity also slightly increased, which is equivalent to 0.3 Wm-2 is the amount of radiation.

Scientists do everything we can to explore the atmospheric composition change on the potential impact of climate change. In order to understand the mission first and foremost since the Industrial Revolution the role of the net amount of radiation changes. However, due to the lack of basic information, lack of understanding of a range of factors, scientists can only on the radiation effects of greenhouse gases have more confidence in estimates, changes in atmospheric composition to other estimates, the confidence is still not high.

Suspended particles

2009-02-16T22:56:00.001-08:00

More than human economic activities produce greenhouse gases, but also to create a large amount of suspended particles. They have a cooling effect on the atmospheric radiation and the net effect of greenhouse gases the contrary. Suspended particles are floating in the air of small particles (diameter between 0.001 ~ 10μm) a general term, has the natural and man-made. Natural suspended particles have ash, flue dust (soil dust; most from North Africa and the Asian desert areas), sea salt aerosol and so on. Man-made industrial dust suspended particles have (industrial dust; mostly produced by incomplete combustion of impurities), soot, sulfate and nitrate and other suspended particles.

Larger sizes of suspended particles by the gravity traction quickly dropped the surface, stay in the atmosphere is very short, little impact on climate. Small particles of suspended particles, although the largest quantity, but quality and the proportion of surface area is too small, the impact on climate is not much. Therefore, the impact of climate biggest diameter of suspended particles around in between 0.1 ~ 1μm.

Suspended particles absorb radiation, and scattering of solar radiation. Suspended particles in the presence of a high temperature may rise, other regions are cooling. For example, near the surface of soot absorbed short-wave radiation, so that tropospheric warming, but the surface absorption of solar radiation has decreased, the temperature drop. In another example, the stratospheric volcanic ash in the absorption of atmospheric long-wave radiation, so that stratospheric temperature rise, but its strong scattering effect, increase the albedo, reducing the troposphere into the amount of solar radiation, anti-so near the surface temperature dropped. Generally speaking, the majority of suspended particles (apart from soot) imposed on the radiation effects of the troposphere for the cooling effect.

Another role of suspended particles is to serve as cloud condensation nuclei . Water vapor are less than the look, we can see the clouds are water droplets or ice crystals to form. Small water droplets to form cloud condensation nuclei to have it the size of about 0.1 ~ 0.2μm, and we consider the size of suspended particles. Once generated, the small droplets can be formed within minutes of raindrops 2000μm. By volume, the growth of a 1012-fold. Even if there are no impurities, water vapor will reach saturation point, if condensation. However, impurities (such as salt, suspended particles, etc.) exist, allows water vapor did not reach saturation condensation began (just as easy to damp salt caking). For example, a small droplet radius of 0.4μm, if melting has 10-15 grams of salt, the water droplet surface is equivalent to the volume of saturated water vapor relative humidity of 99.6%. That is to say, this one small water droplets can not saturated in water vapor environment, the lessons of the water vapor around constantly growing larger. Once the water vapor in the air condenses into small droplets together to form visible clouds.

With many suspended particles on the characteristics of cloud condensation nuclei, they can increase Xiaoyun droplet (cloud droplet) the quantity, but a further increase in cloud albedo. Consider the equivalent amount of water vapor, if the cloud droplet number, each assigned to a cloud droplet of water vapor less cloud droplet size also small; the other hand, if a small number of cloud droplets, the cloud droplet size larger . Generally speaking, the smaller cloud droplets, cloud albedo larger. In addition, the small size of the cloud droplet formation of precipitation is not easy, because they are too light, but probably would not fall, the decline may also be the way to quickly evaporated.

Increase in atmospheric aerosol content, which may result in the following effects: clouds within the cloud droplet increase in the number, size small is not easy to form precipitation, cloud lifetime is therefore variable length. The Earth's average albedo of 0.3, in which contributions to clouds of 0.2. If the atmospheric cloud cover and cloud albedo increase, and longer life, the Earth's albedo may be larger. In other words, the atmosphere and surface absorbs less solar radiation. From the above discussion, we know that excessive suspended particles serve as condensation may wish to check the indirect effects of the Earth's atmosphere are cooling radiation may make the troposphere and surface temperatures lower. However, can not be denied is that the scientific community of suspended particulate understanding the indirect effects are still quite limited.

Different greenhouse gases in the atmosphere of a long lifespan, within the troposphere aerosol lifetime is only around a week. Once they enter the troposphere, and some by the influence of gravity falling ground, and some dissolved in rainwater, and the formation of acid rain. Greenhouse gases and long lifespan, so that it can send with the atmospheric circulation evenly spread around the world. Suspended particles due to the short lifespan, can be transmitted is not long distance, mostly scattered in the vicinity of regional pollution sources. Therefore, the distribution of it are regional rather than global. Characteristics of this one can clearly suspended particles from man-made sulfate content distribution maps to see: the areas with the highest concentration in the northern hemisphere, such as the eastern United States, Europe and China, the southern hemisphere is much smaller than the Northern Hemisphere content content.

The impact of greenhouse gases

2009-02-16T22:55:00.000-08:00

Compared with carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, CFCs higher greenhouse effect. For example, a molecule of methane is a greenhouse effect 21 times that of carbon dioxide molecules, nitrous oxide is 206 times that of CFCs, compared with thousands of times to ten thousand times. However, because of carbon dioxide than other gases, so the greenhouse effect of carbon dioxide is still the biggest. Figure 3-10 for the 1980 to 1990 between the various man-made greenhouse gases in the atmosphere caused by the increase in the proportion of radiation. The effects of carbon dioxide accounted for 55%, methane 15%, 6% nitrous oxide, CFCs (CFC; destruction of stratospheric ozone culprits; see chapter V) is a total of 24%.

Another characteristic of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere of their stay (ie, lifetime) is longer. Such as listed in Table 3.2, carbon dioxide, the life period of the life period of 50 ~ 200 years, methane 12 ~ 17 years to 120 years of nitrous oxide, CFC-12 for 102 years. Once these gases into the atmosphere, it is almost impossible recovery, only by the natural process so that they gradually disappear. In the atmosphere due to their long lifespan, the impact of greenhouse gases are long-lasting and global. From any one corner of the Earth to the atmospheric emissions of carbon dioxide molecules, in its 100 years of life-long period, have the opportunity to travel around the world, affecting the climate around. Even if mankind to cease immediately all man-made greenhouse gas emissions from the industrial revolution, the cumulative greenhouse gas will continue to exert their greenhouse effect, the impact of the Earth's climate.

Changing concentrations of greenhouse gases

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Although carbon dioxide is not the main component of the Earth's atmosphere, but its content remains constant change, and with climate change may have a great relationship. Scientists from the fossil carbon isotope content, suggesting the ancient earth's atmospheric carbon dioxide content. Figure 3-6 are the last 500 million years of carbon dioxide changes, the figure R = 1 is equivalent to the current atmospheric carbon dioxide content. In the early Cambrian period (more than 500 million years ago), carbon dioxide levels today are content 15-20 times, and then continued to decline until 3 million years ago, reached with the current content of a considerable extent. 100000000 ~ 2 millions of years ago, compared with the current content of 3 ~ 5 times Coincidentally, during this period (Jurassic) climate warming, the dinosaurs are the most advantage of the Earth's biological.

Figure 3-6 in the value of pushing the valuation, the former Soviet Union scientists in the Antarctic Vostok ice core is made of the ancient atmosphere containing actual samples, recorded over the past years changes in greenhouse gases. Figure 3-7 from the ice core are measured between the past 22 million years, carbon dioxide, methane content, as well as the estimated value of the temperature changes. We found that long-term changes in the three fairly consistent over the short-term change has some discrepancies. For example, 13-14 million years ago, the temperature higher than the modern climate 1-2 ℃, carbon dioxide and methane content is the highest. High levels of greenhouse gases, the greenhouse effect, and the temperature of natural increase. However, research has also pointed out that in high temperature environment, the soil biomass (biomass) faster rate of corruption, there will be more carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from the surface; Moreover, if the marsh area increased, the surface release The methane emissions will also increase. Clearly, from Figure 3-7 can not determine the temperature and greenhouse gas content of the causal link between, but changes in the consistency of the two is no doubt.

Historical data from the above, we know that carbon dioxide content in the range of natural variation rather large (may be related to changes in the earth's crust, volcanic eruptions on the frequency). Since the European industrial revolution, mankind's industrial activities substantial use of fossil fuels (fossil fuel, such as coal, oil), to create a large amount of carbon dioxide, and emissions to the atmosphere. Before the industrial revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has been maintained at about 280ppmv (that is, one million unit volume of gas contained in unit volume of carbon dioxide 280, Figure 3-8). After the Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide levels increase rapidly after the 1950s, increasing faster rate until 1995 358ppmv.

Posterior lobe from the 18th century to 1994, carbon dioxide levels increased by 30%. These increases are mainly from the burning of fossil fuels, cement production and land use. Coal and oil in the combustion process of carbon is oxidized into carbon dioxide; limestone were used to produce cement process also release carbon dioxide; land development and utilization of not only reduced the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by plants, but also to accelerate the perishable and produces carbon dioxide. We are now used in most of the Carboniferous coal (more than 300 million years ago) for some reason the trees were buried in the strata, and gradually formed the fossils. More than 300 million years ago plants absorb solar radiation energy left behind by modern human beings in one, two hundred years between the will of the exhausted.

Except carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and other greenhouse gases because the increase of population, economic activity becoming more active, and the rapid increase in Figure 3-9). For example, from before the Industrial Revolution to 1994, the methane content from 700ppbv (part per billion by volume, a billionth) to 1721ppbv; nitrous oxide from 275ppbv to 311ppbv. CFC for the man-made chemicals in the 1950s before the appearance of large numbers, and then increasing rapidly. Recently, as a result of Montreal Protocol banned CFCs, and their contents are no longer in the 1990s to increase.

Greenhouse gases and the greenhouse effect

2009-02-16T22:53:00.000-08:00

Evenly blackbody radiation absorption and radiation in each band. General gas is not in bold, will selectively absorb certain bands of radiation. Many of the Earth atmospheric gases absorb hardly visible, but specialized to absorb long-wave radiation. Figure 3-3 are a variety of gases in the absorption rate band. For example, water vapor (H2O) in less than 0.8μ m band absorption rate is almost zero, but in the longer-wave part of (for example, 5μ m) the absorption rate of almost 1, which is completely absorbed. Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the wavelength greater than 15μ m above the radiation has excellent absorption rate. Oxygen (O2), ozone (O3), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), also have similar characteristics. In addition to absorbing long-wave radiation, oxygen and ozone more absorbing a large portion of the ultraviolet light, so that life on Earth immune to UV radiation poisoning .

These are good at absorbing long-wave radiation but do not like to absorb short-wave radiation of the gas, allowing about 50% of solar radiation through the atmosphere, surface absorption, but almost all of the surface to intercept and atmospheric radiation of energy, reduce energy loss, and then the emitted, making the surface and tropospheric temperature. If the top of the atmosphere solar radiation intensity (342 Wm-2) as 100 units, 89 units of surface absorbed from the atmosphere to the surface radiation of the long-wave radiation, is much larger than its short-wave radiation absorbed by the volume (about 50 units). At night, atmospheric long-wave radiation to radiation, so that the surface is not due to lack of solar radiation has become too cold. The impact of these gases similar agricultural greenhouse warming effect, so called greenhouse gases, their impact is called the greenhouse effect. The existence of atmospheric warming is not only the surface, but also lowered the temperature difference between day and night.

If we consider the radiative properties of the atmosphere, but does not consider the characteristics of the atmosphere can flow, the vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature should be the dotted line in Figure 3-4, the actual temperature distribution, compared with solid line. Comparing the two, we found that only consider the radiation balance, surface temperature much higher than the actual temperature, and the tropopause (about 10 kilometers) is too low, and therefore the vertical temperature lapse rate is far greater than the actual vertical atmospheric lapse rate. This one atmospheric state is bound to a very unstable, prone to intense convection, so that hot air rising, cold air drop, the net effect for the heat to upload. Near surface air temperature drop, high temperature increased, so that the temperature of the vertical temperature trends Figure 3-4 in the solid line. This boil water in the stove on very similar process: teapot in the rolling water, will be provided by the fire's spread the heat evenly, until all the water to reach boiling point.

The greenhouse effect not only occurred in the Earth, Venus and Mars, the main ingredient for the carbon dioxide atmosphere. Atmospheric greenhouse effect of Venus up to 523 ℃, the Martian atmosphere is too thin, the greenhouse effect is only 10 ℃, while the Earth's atmosphere between the two for 33 ℃ (Table 3.1). Strictly speaking, the Earth's atmospheric greenhouse effect should be 82 ℃, because if we do not consider the vertical movement of atmospheric, land surface temperature from -15 ℃ up to 67 ℃ (Figure 3-4 the dotted line). We measured the surface temperature (15 ℃) are actually adjusted by the exercise of atmospheric temperature.

The greenhouse effect since ancient times. Was born in the earth 46 million years ago, when the intensity of the sun only about the current 70%. Solar intensity of 1% of the change, which is equivalent to the surface temperature of 1 ~ 2 ℃ changes. Therefore, if the Earth's climate is only affected by the impact of solar radiation in the radiation balance, the ancient Earth's atmosphere should be dozens of degrees lower than at present. At that time, the earth will not be a blue, full of water planet, but a white hockey. However, none of a variety of paleoclimate data show the Earth once in such a cold climate. This is the so-called contradictions of the sun weak (weak sun paradox). Scientists found that when the newly formed earth, volcanic activity, many emitting carbon dioxide, has become the main component of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide greenhouse effect, so a lot of atmospheric temperature. Therefore, although solar radiation is weak, but the Earth's climate is not too cold. This one with Venus and Mars similar.

At present, the main component of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) and a far cry from the early atmospheric composition. This is because the original biological emergence of algae, the photosynthesis, carbon dioxide release of oxygen, gradually transforming the composition of the atmosphere. Today, most of the carbon stored in the earth's crust and oceans, the atmosphere was full of oxygen. Venus and Mars, because no biological effects of early atmospheric composition is therefore retained. Scientists also found a number of times, paleoclimate Megathermal emergence are related to carbon dioxide (from volcanic eruptions) an increase. From the above discussion, we know that the greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon, but since the opening day of pangu have. As long as there is the atmosphere, the greenhouse effect may have.

Changes in carbon dioxide levels can affect the climate, but to create the current atmospheric temperature distribution is a major factor in water vapor. Atmospheric water vapor amount of small, only 0.5 percent less than the total mass of the atmosphere, but water is apart from the sun, the impact of biotechnology and climate biggest material. Scientists simulate the vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature and found that as long as the mode Add the actual water vapor content of the observed, simulated atmospheric vertical temperature distribution with the actual situation on the order of magnitude . If we add carbon dioxide, the temperature further enhance 10K, but does not change the temperature distribution; stratosphere (10 km) temperature with a high increase in the required addition of ozone can add analog out. This simulation, because not taken into consideration the effects of clouds, tropospheric temperature higher than a lot of observations. The study pointed out that the biggest impact of greenhouse gases are water vapor, which contributed 80% of the greenhouse effect, not only determines the vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature, but also created a warm Earth's climate. Relatively speaking, the carbon dioxide is the climate becomes warmer.

Radiation characteristics

2009-02-16T22:51:00.000-08:00

Electromagnetic radiation is transmitted through a kind of energy. As gravity or a magnet in a vacuum can pendulum swing, the same electromagnetic wave energy having to go through any medium can be in a vacuum delivery. X-ray, ultraviolet, visible light, microwaves, radio waves are a kind of electromagnetic wave. The biggest impact of climate mostly between the ultraviolet to the infrared band, is the strongest band of solar radiation .

Any object are emitted radiation will be. Radiation properties of a material if compliance with the basic law of radiation (such as Pu Planck's law (Planck's law), external causes of displacement law (Wien's displacement law), law Quejido (Kirchoff 's law) and so on, referred to as blackbody (blackbody ), are ideal for one's material circumstances. blackbody absorbed all the incident radiation, is neither reflective nor penetrating radiation. blackbody radiation, one of the characteristics are the energy and temperature is proportional to the fourth (this is the law of Pu-Poulenc ). spread to the Earth's solar radiation from sunlight many balls (which are part of the naked eye to see), its temperature is about 5800K; the Earth's radiation balance temperature of 255K. If the sun and the Earth as a blackbody, solar radiation intensity radiation intensity of the Earth about 300,000 times.

A blackbody radiation characteristics of the material, if the higher temperature, emitted energy concentrated in the shorter wavelength band; In contrast, low temperature, energy concentrated in the longer wavelength band. This is the external causes of displacement law, which is a maximum energy of electromagnetic waves is inversely proportional to wavelength and temperature. Such as the Sun as a blackbody, the biggest part of the radiation concentrated in the visible light (wavelength of 0.4 ~ 0.7μm). Temperature of the Earth's radiation balance is well below the temperature of the sun, so the energy concentrated in the longer-wavelength infrared band (wavelength around the near 10μm).

From Figure 3-2, we can clearly see the sun and earth radiation energy concentrated band, a great difference between each other, overlapping part of small and very small in the energy band. We, therefore, can easily distinguish between the Sun and the Earth's radiation. Solar radiation due to a shorter wavelength, commonly known as short-wave radiation; earth radiation, relatively speaking, a longer wavelength, known as long-wave radiation.

Seismic wave phase

2009-02-15T09:34:00.000-08:00

Related to the internal structure of most of the Earth is to examine the body wave travel time (travel time) on that. Seismic wave propagation path can be used wave line (ray) to express. Different wave line has a different name, called the wave-phase (phase).

P wave and S-wave speed and medium-density and flexible nature, the Earth's interior P-wave and S wave velocity usually increases with depth, but in some depth as a result of material or phase changes in particular have changed , such as the outer core part of that is because it is the relationship between the liquid and can not transmit S waves and the sharp drop in P-wave velocity.

Affected by the P wave S-phase studies, and the travel time curve (travel time curve) by the performance characteristics of the Earth found that the presence of non-continuous surface wave velocity, that is, the passage of seismic waves, the speed of drastic change. The most famous one for discontinuous surface (Moho discontinuity) for the crust and upper mantle boundary; Second, discontinuous surface Gothenburg (Guttenburg discontinuity) for the mantle and the core line.

Because the speed of the existence of discontinuous surface, the local shock waves through occurs when the phenomenon of reflection and refraction, and therefore can also be seen on seismic records spread P-wave S-wave reflection and refraction, such as wave-wave phase. Through different parts of the wave of the Earth have different names. Starting from the source of seismic waves through the Earth's interior and then back to the Earth's surface, then the letter in the P wave or S wave lines still express P or S; outer nuclear ball line in P to K said that without the existence of S-wave; in kernel P wave and S ball line to I and J, respectively, express; ─ letter in the core of the reflex points on the border in order to express c; ─ in the core outer core boundary on the reflection point to i express.

We can wave line is divided into five categories; 1) wave lines in letter only to P, S, PP, SS, PS, PPP, ..., such as express. 2) wave-line through the mantle in the earth's core mantle boundary reflection ─ after the return to the surface through the mantle to PcP, PcS, ScS ... such as express. 3) wave-line through the mantle and outer core to return to the surface, to PKP, PKS, SKS ... and so on express. 4) wave-line through the mantle, outer core, then core outer core boundary ─ reflex, and then through the outer core, mantle and return to the surface, to PkiKP, PKiKS, SkiKS ... such as express. 5) wave-line through the mantle, outer core and kernel to PKIKP, PKIKS, PKJKP, SKJKS ... such as express.

When the source is not surface when waves can customize the source down the spread of the spread can also be upward. Upward spread of seismic reflection in the table, and then down the spread of this from this source to the surface wave line, to p, s express, so there may be wave of pP, sS, pPKP ... and so on.

Because the Earth's internal structure is very complex, all floors of the wave propagation speed is different and thus can cause refraction, affect the transmission of shock waves. To P-wave as an example, P-wave in the internal dissemination of the Earth, the distance from the earthquake epicenter and to 1 degrees, 2 degrees ... 103 degrees can still be clearly recorded in the direct P wave, but from 103 onwards, P-wave because after refraction arising from the earth's core, because the relationship between the angle of incidence, refraction of the P wave will appear in addition to 143 degrees.
So epicenter distance of 103 degrees to 143 degrees, while still observing the P-wave phase, but in this area of the P wave for the diffraction wave, energy is very weak compared with other places, in this interval that is with the formation of the shadow (shadow zone)

Seismic waves

2009-02-15T09:32:00.001-08:00

When the dislocation reaction, the accumulation in the elastic deformation of the rock's energy consumption has a part in the fault plane dislocation friction generated heat, has a part of consumption in the fragmentation of rock, one part of the rock has generated a rebound seismic waves to carry, to spread in all directions. Generated by the seismic source has two types of seismic waves, called P waves (Primary wave), the spread of faster; another known as the S waves (Secondary wave), slow. These two waves can be found in the rock mass internal transfer, it also as the body wave (also known as entity-wave) (Body wave).

P-wave in the dissemination, the particle direction and the sport spread shock waves direction, that is, the particle Chuanbo spread along the direction of the turn produce compression and expansion changes, like sound waves in general. P-wave in solids and liquids can be spread.

S wave in the dissemination, the particle movement in the direction and vertical direction of shock wave transmission, that is, particle Chuanbo vertical transmission in the direction of vibration, of media distortions. As a result of such properties, so S-wave are unable to spread a liquid or gas, as liquid or gas can not be distorted.

In addition, S-wave particle because exercise direction and wave propagation direction perpendicular to the vertical direction can be divided into upper and lower vertical and around the vertical, up and down vertical direction for vertical movement known as the SV-wave (V express vertical), vertical to the horizontal direction about sports known as the SH-wave (H express horizontal).

Body wave in the dissemination of material at the Earth's interior because of the layered structure and the role of the surface interface (such as refraction, reflection of the role), but also by the development of only part of the surface spread of SAW (Surface wave), its amplitude with the distance from the surface reduce the depth.

SAW can be divided into two, one for(Love wave), the particle movement along the horizontal plane like the way the S-wave (SH wave), in the vertical direction on the ground there is no vibration. Another called SAW (Rayleigh wave), the particle vibration Rayleigh wave is in the vertical plane of elliptical exercise.

SAW speed slower than the body wave, which Rayleigh wave slower than Love wave. So after the earthquake, seismic instruments are first received P wave, followed by S SAW affected. If not too far away when the wave speed due to a variety of small differences, it is not easy, respectively.

Fault patterns

2009-02-15T09:31:00.001-08:00

Most earthquakes are from the dislocation caused by the local layer dislocation caused by the earthquake, the fault on both sides of the strata relative to do exercise, the relative exercise actually are separated by a surface, this surface is called segmentation fault plane (fault plane). Relative motion form of the decision of the type of fault.

Fault can basically be divided into three patterns:
1. By the tension caused by normal faults
(Normal fault)
2. By the pressure caused by thrust fault
(Thrust fault)
3. Shift caused by the shear fault
(Strike-slipe fault)

Few faults are usually purely normal fault, reverse fault or the translation fault, the majority of faults may be generated by normal faults (or reverse fault) and a combination of translation fault oblique-slip fault. After the earthquake fault would try to seek the sliding form, can Backstepping crustal stress the nature and distribution.

Plate tectonics

2009-02-15T09:28:00.000-08:00

To learn more about the current structure of the Earth's upper and explain the reasons for the earthquake happened, by the theory of plate tectonics (Plate tectonics) to illustrate. Plate tectonics theory of the twentieth century the Earth are the most significant scientific achievements, all the evolution of the Earth crust, can be explain by the theory of operation of the plate.
The doctrine that the earth surface range of 100 kilometers of lithosphere, on behalf of plate itself, and 100-200 km for the asthenosphere, are more prone to deformation of the part of the lithosphere "floats" in the mobile asthenosphere.

Plate is divided into two types: ocean plate and continental plates, the ocean plate by the high density of silicon magnesian rocks tend to base, and the lighter continental plate from aluminum silicate rocks acidic bias.

The Earth's interior as a result of the role of thermal convection, magma rising is that the surface plate rifting, resulting in separation of plate boundaries (divergent boundaries), mid-ocean ridges are represented in the region have many shallow, normal faults (RIFTING role ) type of small earthquakes. In the mid-ocean ridge magma from deep plus come in, are generated by ocean plate, are in the shallow basalt, deep, compared with gabbro.

Ocean plate to two centimeters per year rate of outward expansion (known as seafloor spreading theory), until the edge of continental plates meet, due to heavier ocean plate would subduction under the continental plates, resulting in polymerization of plate boundaries (convergent boundaries). Ocean plate in the extrusion process, will promote the continental plates move, have a "continental drift", the current distribution of the world's five continents, are from a large piece of the former "Pangu" Zhang open to the mainland. Polymerization as a result of two different plate boundaries, the nature of the plate collision, and continuously in extrusion, and constantly in the accumulation of deformation energy, until more than be able to endure the extent of the rock, then accumulation of deformation energy released in an instant, the earthquake happened. This enormous collision forces so that polymerization of plate boundaries, many of the deeply shallow, thrust fault (compression) type of a major earthquake. Ocean plate along the subduction zone, subduction under the continental plate into approximately 700 kilometers under the will and the assimilation of the surrounding material, so most of the earthquake can also be 700 kilometers arrival. Taiwan earthquake hit near the arrival of up to 300 kilometers, on behalf of the role of the subduction of younger, smaller scale.

Apart from the edge of the separation plate (mid-ocean ridges) and polymer plate margins (continental margin), there are not a third plate of Health has not quenched the edge of sport, known as the transformation fault (transform fault), around the mid-ocean ridges in the vicinity of the seabed terrain, we can see a very long cracks, that is, transformation fault. Transformation does not fault the accumulated too many earthquakes.

Because of the various convection direction and speed of the exercise is not consistent, they are driven by plate movement is also inconsistent, making the adjacent plates separated from each other will happen, each side of the collisions or rub each other and so on. And because the constantly shifting plates, so constant in the accumulation and release of energy, earthquakes happen continuously cycle was known as the elastic rebound theory (Elastic Rebound Theory).

Perhaps from the above described plate theory may be that closely related to plate movement and earthquakes, from all over the world the location of an earthquake can be outlined plate morphology. Seven plates are from the global composition of the ocean plates have also have continental plates, between relying on a number of small plates miscellaneous.

More rigid internal plate, so the earthquake happened in the interaction between plate and plate, the plate boundaries, that is. Taiwan earthquake, that is, in the Philippine Sea plate (Ocean plate) and the Eurasian plate (continental plates) under the interaction.

The origin of earthquakes

2009-02-15T09:25:00.000-08:00

The origin of earthquakes has been a concern. Since ancient times, a lot of speculation in the Age of Mythology, the majority of cases are believed that have some kind of underground animal or god moves on the earthquake. For example, in Taiwan the ancient legend that earthquakes are underground soil movement caused by cattle in Japan is that the catfish in the ground exercise.

The rise of geology in the eighteenth century, the earthquake phenomenon from the topographical point of view changes. Earthquakes caused by many factors, everything from volcanic eruptions, the ground suddenly collapsed, underground nuclear explosion, landslides, meteorite hit the ground and dislocation, etc. could trigger an earthquake. In many causes, the dislocation caused by the earthquake up to, but also the most important. All over the world for more than 90 percent of the earthquake is.

China Meteorological Administration forecast a lack of recognition

2009-02-09T06:04:00.001-08:00

China central and southern provinces have taken place in the past few decades of the worst storms, causing serious casualties and economic losses. Officials attributed the disaster to extreme weather conditions, but China Meteorological Zheng Guoguang acknowledged that the level of meteorological department forecasts, but also can not accurately forecast the time of each storm.

From Xinhua News Agency reported that Zheng Guoguang in China's State Council Information Office held a press conference to admit that "did not expect" snow continued. He also acknowledged that the current weather forecasts limited to the technical standards of week later it is hard to make sure that the weather forecast.

The report quoted Zheng Guoguang as saying that every year in southern China at low temperature of frozen rain and snow weather, generally lasted only 23 days this year, Four, and continued to 45 days each time, which are very rare.

Zheng Guoguang said that in January 22 after the rain and snow appears twice, not enough is expected to occur on the 25th after rain and snow. And because the prior did not expect the South in response to lack of preparation work, such as roads icy grave, but the lack of sufficient de-icing equipment.

Zheng Guoguang said that China's relevant departments are enacted in response to low temperature south of frozen rain and snow weather plans, but he refused to disclose how much the plans need to be invested in the funds.

China National Climate Center in Beijing, said Li Weiyi, deputy director of the so-called weather the snow and ice is "one event of fifty years", shows the South snowstorm climate probability of 2%, which is based on climatological data, the probability analysis.

China Central Meteorological Station Jiao Meiyan Director pointed out that the 4-5 day for two days in February in southern China are the first rain and snow, but short duration, intensity is relatively weak. February 6 to the Lunar New Year February 9 the third day, most areas in southern China is not much rain and snow, but the temperature is still relatively low, slow-melting snow and frozen.

Although people think Zheng Guoguang comments to show that this is a welcome release幵attitude, but told reporters that the news was difficult to convey to visitors the siege blizzard. Hundreds of thousands of migrant workers have been waiting at the station for several days, I hope in the February 7 Lunar New Year return home before the New Year.

Authorities estimated that approximately 100 million population affected by the snowstorms, the economic losses from 540 billion yuan. British Broadcasting Corporation reported that in the south, the lack of facilities to cope with, transmission of electricity cables are too small and can not withstand a lot of snow and ice.

As a result of serious drought, China has sent 1.3 million active duty and reserve military personnel to assist the disaster relief. Officials warned that the storm damage, may arise in the future situation of food shortages.

China Meteorological officials pointed out that in the context of global warming, the extreme weather events occurred in the frequency and intensity is increasing trend, similar to the occurrence of extreme weather events have the frequency and intensity may increase. May also occur in other, such as typhoons, sandstorms, and now it is difficult to predict.

Chert

2009-02-06T08:22:00.000-08:00

Synonyms: flint
Chemical composition: SiO2
Characteristics: Pillar of a pulp for the amorphous and crystalline silicate is a mixture of quality, color black, brown black. Appearance for tuberculosis, plates, layered, translucent, surface often has a white capsule of silicate, tuberculosis often containing organic compounds, waxy luster, hardness 6.5 to 7, the proportion of 2.60 ~ 3.65. Containing silicon (Si) of about 46.7%, oxygen (O) 53.3%, chemical stability, are soluble in hydrogen fluoride, but not soluble in other acids, more soluble in caustic alkali quartz.
Occurrence: occurrence of fissures in the limestone or thin shape of tuffaceous sediments, by siliceous replacement solution formed. Luan Shan belong to Miocene are sometimes found in Cretaceous layer, the habitat for the sea animal fossils materials, often containing the remains of diatoms, when mixed with calcium carbonate and organic matter.
Uses: glass, ball mill grinding of the body; paints, fertilizers, pesticides, rubber and other additives, asphalt roads of steelmaking slag making use of filling materials.

Jasper

2009-02-06T08:21:00.001-08:00

Synonyms: iron quartz
Chemical composition: SiO2
Characteristics: cryptocrystalline quartz, usually strips or spots was Streak's massive, depending on the mineral content of different elements showed a variety of colors, such as Ming Hung,dark red , brown red, brown black, green, gray and so on. And brittle, no cleavage, conchoidal fracture was, a waxy and shiny glass, opaque, hardness 6.5 to 7, the proportion of 2.6 ~ 3.5.
Occurrence: the case of silicate minerals, from a large number of small granular hematite or black flint, etc.. Often contain hematite and red multi-show. Taiwan Biyu produced, depending on color and streak, can be divided into red, yellow, bloodshot, skin, etc., due to poor light transmission with chalcedony distinction.
Uses: decorations, carvings, Ornamental Stones, who can be used for high quality semi-precious stones.

Agate

2009-02-06T08:20:00.001-08:00

Chemical composition: SiO2
Characteristics: the case of Aphanitic, the proportion of 2.62 ~ 2.64, hardness 6.5 to 7, a porous, cleavage was not obvious, at under a microscope has crystalline structure quality. Pseudocaranx was shaped or ribbon, the color may be different on each floor, parallel bands, but also wavy or irregular line can was white, light to Green or gray, often artificial coloring. General moss agate contain obvious inclusions, and were dendritic or moss-like pattern.
Occurrence: In the igneous rock crystal cave, from aqueous solution by precipitation. Jing-dong has a beautiful center is often accompanied by transparent Transmission, and even have water or air bubbles, a lot of color change in itself, its internal folders usually have other ores.
Uses: precious stones, mortars, crafts, decorations.

Blue Chalcedony

2009-02-06T08:18:00.001-08:00

Synonyms: Taiwan Sapphire
Chemical composition: SiO2
Characteristics: Aphanitic, the proportion due to low water content than quartz for 2.58 ~ 2.64, hardness 7, have waxy luster. Produced by the province was due to the blue copper containing 0.01 ~ 0.02% due to the uranium associated with micro-0.002 ~ 0.035%, so have the radioactive reaction, some scholars said the case of silicon malachite (Chrysocolla).
Occurrence: the quality produced in the andesite agglomerate filling irregular, the pulse was irregular-shaped distribution, mainly by radiation fibrous or granular ball composed of pulp stones. Often containing a small amount of chlorite, opal and natural copper.
Uses: Gemstone (semi-precious stones), rings, earrings, brooches, necklaces and other ornaments, or the Ornamental Stones.

Chalcedony

2009-02-06T08:17:00.001-08:00

Synonyms: stone myeloid
Chemical composition: SiO2
Characteristics: Aphanitic, the proportion of 2.58 ~ 2.64, due to low water content than the quartz. Under the microscope in Radiology fibrous, have waxy luster, transparent to translucent, or transparent when particle size has a different ribbon structure. White chalcedony matrix porosity between grain or crystal face, such as incorporation of impurities that is affected by a different color. The same general composition and quartz, although for caustic potash erosion, can be the difference between quartz.
Occurrence: the quality produced in the andesite agglomerate, the department increased by hydrothermal irregular invasive in the filling. Coastal Range of chalcedony, mainly by volcanic activity in the region rose to shallow hydrothermal when its temperature and pressure drops, so that the role of silica generated leaching, transformed into the chalcedony Aphanitic; also provided through the non-uniform crystallization the course of, or intrusion into irregular folds or fissures.
Uses: Gemstone (semi-precious stones), decorations and ornamental crafts.

Quartz Crystal

2009-02-06T08:16:00.000-08:00

Crystal system: hexagonal Department
Chemical composition: SiO2
Characteristics: good crystalline quartz are known as crystal, usually showed the six-party columns and rhombohedron posed by poly-shaped. Cylinder on the often striated, pure quality from colorless, transparent, glass luster, conchoidal fracture, hardness 7, the proportion of 2.65, including those impurity was purple, gold, TB, such as color.
Occurrence: produced in the metamorphic rocks in the vicinity of their geological soil for green schist, graphite schist, sericite schist, sericite schist, green mud, quartz schist, crystalline limestone of interbedded, during which a lot of milky white quartz vein of, crystal that is produced in the cross section of the Green clay schist quartz vein the size of the hole crystal.
Purposes: as semi-precious stones, Machinable for outside decorations, its optical properties for use in precision optical instruments, such as sub-photoelectron spectroscopy and optical lenses. Another according to their electrical characteristics of materials used in electronic communications, such as crystal oscillators, etc.; crystal produced by electric furnace melting of glass, small expansion coefficient, heat resistance, acid-resistant and have insulation suitable for the machine type of heating devices, as well as the manufacture of high pressure mercury and so on.

Quartz

2009-02-06T08:14:00.001-08:00

Crystal system: hexagonal Department
Chemical composition: SiO2
Features: separate from the formation of silica minerals, quartz content of the earth's crust is about 12 percent, second only to feldspar-group minerals content. Hardness of 7, the proportion of 2.65, conchoidal fracture, a vulnerability, glass luster, white to colorless, transparent. Containing a variety of metal impurities in a variety of colors when presented with piezoelectric and pyroelectricity.
Attitude: positive vein, massive, sandy, commonly found in granite, pegmatite, quartz vein or veins of the gangue, but also commonly found in acidic igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks, and often in the hydrothermal veins in the gangue and metal symbiosis. The province was particularly prevalent in the Central Mountain Range east slope into the range of crystallization of quartz veins in schist.
Uses: crystal glass, optical glass, ceramics, abrasive materials, precious stones or ornaments, refractories, quartz tube, quartz crucible, silicon brick, steel flux Deacidification, desulfurizer, silicon carbide, metal silicon, optical fibers, the manufacture of artificial crystal materials. Electronics industry, such as semiconductor materials, rectifiers, diodes, oscillators and so on.

Graphite

2009-02-06T08:12:00.001-08:00

Crystal system: hexagonal Department
Chemical composition: C
Characteristics: the Department of elemental carbon graphite (C) the crystallization of one mineral, and diamond of the same polymorph as carbon precursors (Polymorphism), hardness of 1 ~ 2, the proportion of 2.23, color was gray to black metal to earthy luster, opaque, Streak is black, cleavage completely, have good electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity, numerate, lubricity and fire resistance, it is very difficult and oxidation together, free from any influence of acids, at very high temperature, the change is not melting point as high as 3000 ℃.
Occurrence: natural graphite depending on the nature of appearance and is divided into: flake graphite, earthy graphite or amorphous graphite. Prolific at the regional or contact metamorphic rocks, such as quartzite and black schist and slate between or among the slate are often associated with calcite, quartz symbiotic; produced in Taiwan are less of low-grade purity graphite.
Uses: electrode, brush, carbon rods, crucibles, pencils heart. And oil mixture can be used by mill agents, lubricants. Another can be used as a casting model, Tu-type, pigments, refractories, batteries, battery, filled pad materials.

Gold

2009-02-06T08:06:00.000-08:00

Crystal system: Department of equiaxed grains
Chemical composition: Au
Characteristics: hardness 2.5 to 3, the proportion of 19.3. Metallic luster, opaque, color and streak are yellow. Acid, but dissolved in aqua regia, the chemical is very stable metal. Never been in the air oxidation, the extension of special and is also an excellent electrical and thermal conductor.
Occurrence: mainly in quartz veins, paragenetic minerals has limonite, pyrite, stibnite, sphalerite and arsenopyrite are also dispersed in the quartz andesite, granite, sandstone and conglomerate in.
Purposes: the International Monetary Fund, casting money, jewelry, precious stones inlaid. Industry for the gold-plated, printed circuit board assembly line of the joints, manufacturing alloys, electrical and electronic semiconductor materials is important.

Sulphur

2009-02-06T07:20:00.002-08:00

Crystal system: Orthorhombic departments or monoclinic
Chemical composition: S
Characteristics: Chalcogenide basic chemical raw materials widely used in chemical industry, metallurgy, agriculture, petroleum, military industry and other fields, natural sulfur mainly in the areas of volcanic activity, and its cleavage is not complete, fracture uneven to conchoidal to shape, dense De was varied form, pure sulfur has a distinctive yellow. Traits very crisp, with pine resin sheen, white streak, hardness 1.5 to 2.5, the proportion of 1.9 ~ 2.1. 120 ℃ in the melting, 270 ℃ burning blue flame, it will become for SO2.
Occurrence: natural sulfur from volcanic vents, as well as mine dye sublimation or precipitation generated, double-cone crystal, irregular or massive bell emulsion, earthy and so on. In addition to self-extract oil and natural gas associated with the recovery of hydrogen sulfide, known as the recovery of sulfur.
Purposes: to create sulfuric acid, carbon disulfide and various sulphides medicines, agricultural fertilizer, photographic film, synthetic fiber, paper pulp, bleaching agents, pesticides, explosives, matches and other manufacturing, as well as the rubber industry and the increase of sulfur powder, such as soil improvement.

Google Earth will forward the Harbor!

2009-02-06T07:12:00.000-08:00

Since Google Earth this software released in 2006, has let hundreds of thousands of people do not have to go out, you can climb on Earth in a virtual Everest, or even one round of the dream of flying into outer space.

According to the British "Guardian" reported that Google now intend to explore another piece of unknown areas, namely the underwater world.

Will be held in a San Francisco event in the industry, the market is expected Google (GOOG-US) will be in Google Earth Add underwater images of sea-bed map.

Such as, making the whole Earth from the Google digitization goal, also near important step forward a step.

The original Google Earth, can have major cities around the world to a three-dimensional form.

Additional functions such as undersea scenes, as well as part of a map of the seabed, will provide a more detailed environmental information to enable people to climate change imposed on the marine impact of get to know more about.

Although so far, with regard to map the seabed habitats exposed only 10 percent, but experts said the seabed to detect people through an interactive Google Earth experience with the ocean, as well as to see the evidence of global warming, is the most important.

University of San Diego David Sandwell, said: "For me, that really stimulated.

Through Google Earth, people will understand, we know very little about the seabed, and Google can help us to explore the seabed.

"As Google plans to provide the public more information on climate change, making Google Earth contains many internal environmental information.

2007, Google has convened a group of experts to help it become a submarine and environmental sources of information.

It seems the near future, Google will also work with institutions in Europe and America work together to continue to implement such a plan.

Sandwell said: "The scientists are concerned, Google Earth is a very useful tool that allows people to share ocean data.

For me, it provides images of the sea-bed is important because the seabed topography on ocean currents and tides huge impact.

"Google Earth is not only used in the development of serious scientific research purposes, it also has the lighter side.

For example, people can use it several dive into the world-renowned dive sites, including the Bahamas, the Red Sea, the Great Barrier Reef and so on.

In this program have a long period, the market for Google in what form will be used to publish a new Google Earth constant speculation.

Many observers hope, will see a great show.

Google Earth all the way looking at the growth of Frank Tylor said: "I do not think that show will be limited to the publication of the new Google Earth, especially as environmental protection experts of the former Vice President Al Gore will also be attending the meeting.

It could be expected that more information on environmental issues of the new information will be open.

Do you understand how much science?

2009-02-02T07:55:00.001-08:00

By the end of each year, many newspapers and magazines will come to a "Top Ten" What the selection. "Time" magazine's "Top Ten scientific discoveries", the ninth is: "Do you understand how much science?" The reason is that, according to the latest survey: U.S. adults have a "civic scientific literacy," the ratio, from 1988 10% up to 28%; that is to say, every four adults in the United States there is a point to understand science.

"Civic scientific literacy" (the mainland of "quality") is the English translation of civic science literacy; the term in 1975 by the University of Pennsylvania professor of physics classes ‧ Jer-Min Shen (Benjamin SP Shen) proposed by referring to the general citizens in public affairs in deciding when to be understanding of scientific knowledge and methods. In addition, Shen also proposed "practical" and "culture" scientific literacy, and "civic scientific literacy" side by side; the former refers to the line can not know the real way to solve the problem, while the latter is to simply appreciate the attitude and access to scientific knowledge. But talking about scientific literacy, the majority refers to the "civic scientific literacy."

Study of scientific literacy in American society more than two decades of Michigan State University Professor Miller (Jon Miller), to the idea of Shen made a further derivative, he thinks that scientific literacy should include the following three points: First, to understand basic scientific vocabulary; II understand the scientific process or the nature of the pursuit; Third, know technology on individuals and society. Therefore, whether it is Miller or the United States Science Foundation (NSF) designed questionnaire civic scientific literacy, are the main contents of these points.

I would like to readers in a certain someone like me curious: Is this questionnaire how difficult it? Whether they have the scientific literacy? NSF site I found this questionnaire, listed below for readers to try. 13 title in nine questions correct (70%), even if there is a scientific accomplishment.

1. Geocentric high temperature.

2. All of the radioactive substances are man-made.

3. Confocal laser is produced by sound waves.

4. Electronic than atomic small.

5. The origin of the universe was a huge explosion.

6. Millions of years ago, the location of all continents have been moving forward, at present remains the case.

7. The Earth around the sun or the earth's rotation around the sun? How long will it take to lap?

8. From his father's genes, determine the child's sex.

9. Antibiotics can kill viruses and bacteria.

10. Today's human beings, from the earlier development of certain animal species.

11. Doctors tell a couple of the genetic make-up, saying that their chance of a quarter of children will suffer from some sort of genetic diseases. If their first child this disease, it is not to say that, the next three children will not have problems?

12. With 11 questions the same situation, it is not to say that the husband and wife each child born, have the same risk?

13. Scientists want to know a drug whether it is useful for the treatment of hypertension. The first scientists to make drugs to 1000 patients with hypertension to see how many of them reduced blood pressure; the second scientists want drugs to 500 patients with hypertension, while 500 are not administered, and then look at the two group among the respective numbers of patients with lower blood pressure. The two doctors practice which is better? Why?

According to Miller, the selection of these issues to a hundred years after the principle of correct knowledge is not tricky. Moreover, the achievements of American adults is not high, but in the 33 participating countries second only to Sweden, in Japan, the Soviet Union above. As a result of Taiwan and China, as well as the implications of the survey, talk about next time.

Answer

1 pairs; 2 wrong; 3 wrong; 4; 5; 6; 7 of the Earth around the sun to turn around a year too; 8; 9 wrong; 10 pairs; 11 wrong; 12; 13 is second place is better because the control group.

Fear of the birth of global warming ocean fish such as dead zones difficult to survive

2009-02-02T07:53:00.001-08:00

Research report released today shows that global warming may be causing in the marine "Dead Zones", which fish and other seafood are difficult to survive, but will continue as long as 2000 years.
The study's author said that the world must cut carbon emissions to curb this trend, because it may be disrupting the marine ecological system, so that future generations can not obtain food from the oceans.

According to the "natural earth sciences (Nature Geoscience)" Journal published on the Internet report, the Danish scientists established a computer model to simulate the next 10 million years of climate change in the situation.

This mode is the core of two-to-use program, the use of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere for the temperature indicators. Carbon dioxide is the main cause of global warming gases.

Based on the situation of the worst program in 2100, when atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations will reach 1168ppm, which is about three times today's concentration. If the basis for a more optimistic pattern, then in 2100 when the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 549ppm, which is more than today's concentrations increased by about 50%.

Relevant factors into consideration, scientists predict the worst case, the temperature may be higher than before the industrial age 5-7 degrees Celsius, and if the situation better, then the temperature will rise 2-4 degrees Celsius.

Denmark University of Science and Technology (Technical University ofDenmark) physicist Speed Health (Jens Olaf PepkePedersen) said that no matter what kind of situation, on the marine are bad news.

If the worst case, the ocean temperature increases, the current slowdown will lead to lower oxygen content of the oceans, resulting in the so-called "death zone", fish and shellfish and other higher forms of marine life can not survive, and may in 1500-2000 years are unable to restore.

Small earthquakes continued strong earthquake precursory

2009-02-02T07:48:00.000-08:00

Irvine intensify in the coming one study showed that across the San Andreas fault in California (San Andreas Fault), the Richter scale occurred in 7 of the main shock for the 137-year cycle, known over the past 200 years short. The southern section of fault has been more than 250 years no more than 7 magnitude earthquake, which contains a powerful energy, could erupt at any time, affect the entire Southern California.

In recent months, Southern California, small earthquakes continued, located in San Diego Tijuana27 Day 2:12, also occurred in 3.0 Richter scale earthquake. University of Southern California Professor of Earth Sciences Research Center, said Li Yong-gang, with the exception of San Andreas, the Chinese community of peers throughout the Vatican (Puente Hills) fault is also facing cycle.

He said that the next 25 years, Southern California 99% probability, the occurrence of a considerable scale in 1994, Northridge earthquake of about 6.7, about 60 percent or more chances 7 earthquake.

The report notes that in Southern California over the past 700 years, the main shock occurred in cycles of about 137 years, with the exception of 1857, the average annual 1310,1393,1585 and 1640 respectively, while the size of 8 major earthquake occurred in cycles, compared to 200 years.

In the past, seismologists believe that the fault occurred in the main shock over a period of 200 years, now research may occur 137 years, scientists asserted that the coming decades, fault may eventually break out 8 earthquake.

Li Yonggang, said up to 1,500 kilometers of the San Andreas fault and its northern section in 1905 in San Francisco 7.9 earthquake occurred, but the central fault Tajon Pass in Southern California and the southern section of the host, it has long been a strong earthquake cycle.

He said, Tajon Pass fault from Central California south Chong, covering Santa Barbara, Ventura, San Fernando and other counties, the paragraph had been in 1857 the size of 8 earthquake has not been 151 years movement, if the increase in accordance with the Irvine study, that the fault occurred in the scale of 7 earthquake has passed the 137-year cycle.

As for the southern section of San Andreas fault, then along the north side of Highway 210 east through the San Bernardino County, Li Yonggang, said that the fault has been more than 250 years is not a big earthquake, regardless of the size of 7 or 8 earthquake, have been the outbreak of the cycle.

Li Yonggang, said from Los Angeles to the southeast, along the San Gabriel Valley and south to Highway 5, Anaheim peers Vatican fault, in the past 12,000 years have been more than 6 times 7.5 earthquake so far has been to 2000 cycle.

He said that peer Vatican fault coverage for the Chinese gathered, including Monterey Park, San Gabriel, Diamond Bar such as, in the event of earthquake, will have an impact on the majority of Chinese.

Li Yong-gang and said that over the past year and found that these two faults, 2,3 Richter scale occurred around the frequency of small earthquakes frequently than in previous years, including last week's earthquake in San Bernardino, with the epicenter in a few months ago Chino earthquake, so that they are worried about whether the earthquake precursors.

He said that the Richter scale 7 and 8 degree earthquake despite the shock varies greatly, but all may cause harm to life, especially in the next 25 years 99% chance to occur more than 6.7 magnitude earthquake, while Northridge earthquake was 25 billion yuan loss, so people need to special attention.

Let the Earth's cold down

2009-02-02T07:44:00.000-08:00

British scientists on the Earth system artificially cooling the Earth's 17 kinds of program evaluation, which is injected into the upper atmosphere billions of tons of sulfur aerosol particles to the idea of the sun obscured most effective.

British East Anglia University of the Earth system (earth systems) scientist Tim Lenton on 17 kinds of its post-graduate program of cooling the Earth for analysis, research findings published in the latest issue of the journal Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions.

The results of the analysis showed that about half of the methods involve changing the atmosphere and Earth's surface reflectivity (reflectivity), for example, try to man-made pollution or mechanical means to change the clouds, or the use of plastic films, white deposited in the desert, urban roof. The other half way to attempt to change the Earth's carbon cycle (carbon cycle) to absorb carbon dioxide, such as planting forests on the ground, at sea to increase the algae absorb carbon dioxide, or the construction of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and stored in the ground floor of the machine.

The researchers found that all cooling the Earth's technical proposal, when aerosol particles of sulfur (sulfur aerosols) the idea of the sun obscured most effective. The program recommends that each year injected into the upper atmosphere billions of tons of sulfur aerosol particles or other particles in the atmosphere to achieve better results than reflection reflection of energy back into space more than 1 percent, by 2050 this method years ago, may be on Climate Back to the Industrial Revolution before cooling temperature (pre-industrial temperatures), but this method is also the biggest risk, because of the added need to aerosol particles, if a sudden halt operations, will lead to rapid warming.

Frequent Q nad A of Glaciers

2009-01-21T23:29:00.001-08:00

1. Glacier would block large attachments, these large block of glacier ice will not have resistance so that you slow down?

A: Because the glaciers flows by gravity itself, the impact of very large, while the re-entrainment of the rock glacier in the main debris can increase the gravity, rather than an increase in gravity so that the faster flow of glaciers.

2. How to use radioactive dating to set the history of glaciers?

A: radioactive dating mainly driven by glacial moraine material for dating. Moraine material from the set of radioactive material, compared to determine the history of glacial activity.

3. In the glacier flows at the bottom of why the glaciers because of friction and melting into the water?

A: Because the bottom of the friction will heat, so glaciers will melt into water.

4. How to determine the direction of glacier flow?

A: You can use sheep back stone to determine the direction of glacier flow. However, since the flow of glaciers and water flow similar circumstances, so the direction of flow may be changed at any time, so to determine the direction of glacier flow requires a lot of information, and then check in order to determine the average.

5. Glacier is a large-scale activities, but the larger glaciers on the human effects are?

A: The glaciers on the human impact of the greenhouse effect. If the reduction of carbon dioxide will make glaciers increase, the result will increase the land area. But if carbon dioxide increases, the glaciers will melt, sea level rise.

Historical influence of the doctrine of glaciers

2009-01-21T23:26:00.001-08:00

1. Glacier theory
"According to research geologist in the past geological age, the great ice sheet had to cover up most of the Earth, including the current does not exist, including glaciers, and now see glaciers, its extension of the scope of the past must be than it is now larger and more. " This is the theory of glaciers. As early as 1839 by the Swiss scholar gais Asia (Louis Agassiz) founded.

2. Glacier history
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, many geologists in search of glaciers around the world left behind by glacial sediments and topography, according to radioactive dating, fossils and varying degrees of weathering of soil and found in the Pleistocene period, many regions of the Northern Hemisphere glaciers are covered by the mainland, covering an area of the world's land area of almost 29%, then, because of melting glaciers, retreat of glaciers in the area now accounts for only 10% of land area

Pleistocene period, there have been several well-being of the global climate change, the ensuing glaciation not happen again. Cold weather, the snowfall increased, large-scale development of the glacier, known as the Ice Age; When the climate warming, the ice age receded mass, called interglacial. The most recent Ice Age occurred 75000 years about two years ago, the earliest one in a million years to the Ice Age about two million years ago. Now the world is considered the fourth is in a post-glacial period in the interglacial stage. This shows that the Quaternary Pleistocene is the world's most important period of a glacier in the history of geology known as the Great Ice Age (Great Ice Age).

Quaternary ago in the world have also taken place in several large-scale glacier period, mainly by the formation of different geological age of the moraine of the emergence of complex been proven.

Pleistocene ice age has been in about ten thousand years before the end of the Earth's land surface but more than half are still working with glacial climate conditions, either directly or indirectly related to a variety of terrain, only to then understand the geomorphological process, will it be possible to recognize topography and climate at the time the relationship between.
3. Glacier impact
Glaciers on the impact of sea level around the world is extremely large increase in evaporation of sea water, some of which will be the form of snow fell, snow melted into water in the last into the sea. However, in the history of the cold or glacial period, the balance will be destroyed, because of ice and snow remain in the ground does not move, the sea level will drop, a phenomenon known as "sea-surface changes." In the Great Ice Age comes, a large number of evaporation of seawater has been concentrated in the land caused by glaciers, the sea surface that is generally declined; in the interglacial stage, the gradual melting of glaciers in the water inflow into the ocean, sea water has gradually picked up. The world is currently in an interglacial, sea water rose by about one per year ~ 2 mm. Today, if Antarctica melting ice, rising sea levels will be 60 meters.

Variety roles of Glaciers

2009-01-21T23:21:00.002-08:00

1. Erosion (glacial erosion)

Glacier has a strong erosion of power, most of the role of mechanical erosion, the erosion can be divided into the following categories:

(1) Stubbs erosion (plucking):

When the ice-bed at the bottom or the back cirque bedrock along the joints and loosening of repeated freezing and thawing, if these loose rocks and ice to freeze together, glacier movement when they pulled away rock, which is called out corrosion role. After pulling the post-glacial erosion of its steep curve of the valley is rugged to the formation of a trapezoidal profile of the slope curve.

(2) the role of abrasion (abrasion):

When the glacier movement, frozen in glaciers or ice at the bottom of rock debris, due to pressure from above glaciers of Glacier bed cut grinding and etching, known as the abrasive role. Abrasion role in the formation of bedrock with the polished surface, while or glaciation groove is a good evidence, and its direction can be used to indicate the direction of moving glaciers.

(3) the role of ice wedges (frost action):

Cracks in the rock contained in ice melt water, the role of repeated freezing and thawing, when the volume up when the reduction, caused by broken rock to become fragments, or from both sides of the slope to the glacier falling forward.

(4) Others:

When the ice-melting water into the river, its regular folder there are large volume of ice, will have a strong impact force to undermine cross-strait rock downstream.

Glacier Erosivity strength is subject to the following factors:

(1) ice thickness and weight. From thick and strong emphasis on erosion.

(2) the speed of moving ice. The speed of the larger erosion of power.

(3) to bring the number of stones. Carry more weight the more the number of persons, Erosivity stronger.

(4) of rough ground or smooth rock. Rough ground are more vulnerable to the erosion of glaciers.

(5) at the end of the nature of rock, soft rock at the end of those who are more vulnerable to erosion.

(6) of the tilt rock direction consistent with the direction of movement of glaciers, and prone to erosion.

Due to erosion caused by erosion landform are:

(1) cirque :

For the valley glacier, one of the important erosion landform, formed in the vicinity of the snow line, in flat or low-lying mountain snow Department up to, because of the repeated freezing and thawing snow, causing the collapse of the rock, in the gravity and the combined effect of snowmelt water, will rock eroded into-shaped or horseshoe-shaped depression, the typical cirque was formed. Cirque three steep rock face is to have a downhill openings, if the glaciers receded, the low-lying land with water into a lake, is Lake cirque.

(2) edged ridge , Kok Fung , ice dumb :

If cirque because digging erosion and the erosion of the role of Frost Crack continuous expansion of cirque wall retreat adjacent cirque ridge between formed gradually shaped blade, known as the ridge edge. The cirque of the convergence of several peaks, the shape is very sharp, then known as the peak angle. In between the lower edge of Saddle Ridge, the ice was dumb.

(3)spur , U-type Valley

, stone depressions :

When the valley glacier from the highlands to the low mobility, spur was into a triangle, known as the spur. Glacier Valley because of the shape such as the U-shaped cross section, so called U-Valley. U-Valley Valley on both sides of a clear shoulder, shoulder valley below than straight, wide and flat at the bottom, if the bottom of the valley glaciers, glaciers dug by a solar eclipse, caused by the puddles down, then Stone called the low-lying land.

(4) Fjord :

At high latitudes, glaciers often into the ocean, in the shore erosion into some deep U-Valley, when the ice retreat, the water can enter very far along the valley, the original Valley then into ice fjord.

(5) hanging valley :

Hanging valley formed from the glaciers Erosivity differences, the main glaciers due to thick ice, the next eclipse strong, so deep U-Valley; and support of glaciers because of thin ice, the next eclipse weak, so U-Valley more shallow. Because in the glaciers and the main branch of the intersection of the glaciers often glaciers at the end of the disparity between high and low, when the teams entered the main glaciers of the ice when glaciers will fly into a waterfall-like fall, called hanging valley.

(6) sheep back stone :

For ice an erosion of the bed topography, is composed of bedrock hills, often groups of distribution, such as creeping Yuanwang sheep, the sheep known as the stone back. Their plane for Elliptic, the long axis of the flow direction consistent with the ice, glaciers upstream direction to a slope as a result of glacial erosion of the role of the lower slope, gentler slope, and there are many; while in the other side, by glaciers dug erosion, slope rough, steep slope more. Sheep back stone formation is the result of hard and soft rock is the order of white, when the erosion, the role of weathering, the soft rock will be eroded more deeply; while the hard rock resistance to erosion, weathering ability, Therefore, erosion, weathering, the hard rock than soft rock high, the formation of the elliptical uplift terrain, side by abrasion, corrosion side by digging.

(7) glacier polished surface, glaciers :

Sheep back in the stone or U-Valley and in the Great boulder on the role of glaciers often formed polished surface, when the glaciers moving objects is sand and silt, the rocks in the more dense, the polished surface is more for well-developed; if glaciers moving objects for gravel, then etched into the wall in the Valley Streak or groove called glaciers, one end of rough, the other side of thin, thick at one end point to the upper reaches.

2. Handling the role of (glacial transportation)

Because of the role of glacial erosion resulting from a large number of loose debris and a debris avalanche from the slopes, it will enter the glacier system, together with the movement of glaciers, which was carrying debris known as moraine material, according to their different locations within the glacier , removal can be divided into different types:

(1) Table moraine: the exposed surface of the glacier moraine material.

(2) moraine : caught in the glacial moraine material inside

(3) at the end moraine : accumulation in the bottom of the glacier moraine material.

(4) lateral moraine : on both sides of the glacier moraine accumulation of objects.

(5) in the moraine : the convergence of two glaciers, its adjacent lateral moraine that is merged into one, joined at the middle known as the glaciers in the moraine.

(6) the end moraine (end moraine) : With the advance of glaciers, and in glaciers around the end of the moraine material, known as terminal moraine.

(7) back moraine : As the retreat of glaciers in the process, will brief stay local, and every stay will result in a retreat moraine.

(8) boulders : handling the role of glaciers, not only can moraine were moved to faraway places, but also can be a huge part of the rock moved to the high, which was handling the huge rock that is known as boulders, and its lithology and near the bedrock completely different.

Moving glaciers strong, but relatively, glaciers panning bad.

3. Stacking (glacial deposition)

Sand and gravel carried by glaciers often thrown out along the way it does in the glacier, the different forms of material handling, stacking it down the formation of the corresponding structures of various moraine. The so-called moraine material is directly caused by the glaciers of the ice layer is not sediments. Sediments and ice, that is directly deposited by the glaciers of the material, or as a result of the role of ice water sediments, and because of glaciation and deposition in rivers and lakes ocean substances.

Ice sediments can be divided into no sediment layer of ice and into a layer of ice between the two sediments:

(1) not a layer of ice sediments:
Such ice sediments from the time of the retreat of glaciers caused by gravel left behind, as the ice melted and left behind on the ground deposits of various sizes, with smaller stones at edges and corners, the surface to be polished or with a brush marks, not now after the accumulation of bedding, bedding such clutter-free ice sediments, often called ice boulders from the moraine soil were formed moraine terrain are:

a.) moraine hills :

Melting Ice, the original table with moraine moraine moraine in all sink to the bottom of glaciers, and the end moraine moraine as the base of these objects by the glacier moraine bottom topography, piled into a slope-shaped hills, known as ice moraine hills. Continental glacier area larger moraine hills, and valleys formed by glacial moraine hills, the scale should be smaller.

b.) lateral moraine embankment :

By lateral moraine and table in the retreat of glaciers Department moraine deposited by co-located on both sides of the valley glaciers, shaped into a breakwater to the upper reaches of the glacier could have been extended to near the snow line, and to the downstream and terminal moraine often linked embankment.

c.) the end moraine embankment :

End moraine embankment is reflected by the retreat of glaciers during the suspension period, if the glaciers melt in the supply and balance, then the end of the glacier might like to stop at a certain location, this time by the glacier moving to the material will be available on the flared end of the accumulation of ice into the embankment, known as the end moraine embankment. Continental glaciers smaller terminal moraine embankment height, length up to several hundred kilometers, the smaller arc curvature; the other hand, the end of the valley glacier moraine embankment height of up to several hundred meters, the length of the small curvature of the larger arc.

d.) Drum Hill :

Drum Hill is composed of ice sediments of a hill, about into an oval, long axis in line with the direction of flow, Ying is a steep ice, the ice back is a gentle slope, and its profile for the asymmetric convex. Drum Hill is generally believed that as a result of weakening the movement of glaciers, hampered by the end moraine deposited by. Its glaciers are mainly distributed in the mainland terminal moraine embankment within a few kilometers to several tens of kilometers, often occur in groups, resulting in drum; valley glaciers Hill small number of drums.
(2) into a layer of ice sediments:
This is the glaciers and ice-melting water from the common deposition results, the material carried by glaciers are melting the ice water after scouring and panning will be in accordance with the particle size, the accumulation of stratification, the formation of ice accretion, and in the glaciers from the brink ice deposits composed of a variety of landforms, known as ice accumulation landforms. There are several types:

a.) ice deposition , ice fan , outside the red plains :
At the end of the ice glaciers melt water carried by a large number of gravel, piled up in front of the glaciers in the valley or plain, on the formation of ice water deposition; if the ends of glaciers in the mainland, these sediments can be several kilometers long, in the end moraine piled into the outer breakwater fan, fan-called ice water; a number of ice water fan connected to the formation of the broad masses of ice water on the alluvial plain, also known as the plains outside the red. In these terrain, slope sediments were inclined to downstream to the lower reaches of particle size smaller.

b.) ice water lake , quarter-designate mud :
Lake ice is formed by ice melt water, because the retreat of glaciers, the moraine in front of the glaciers were to block access, can always be water lake. Lake ice has obvious seasonal variation, summer, more ice melt water, a large number of substances into the lakes, a number of coarse particles on the rapid deposition, but also fine particles suspended in the water, color, light; and the winter ice melt water reduction, a number of long-term suspension of fine particles of clay deposition began, the deeper the color. As a result, in the lakes caused by a rough on a small two-story is easy to identify sediment, called the quarter-designate mud.

c.) ice gravel port :
Port for ice gravel bedding and sorting through the fine sand formed, round or irregular shape of the hill. Ice gravel port usually has a layer of the upper layer moraine, ice boulders port is due to the small lake ice, river or stagnant glacier sediment point gap in the glacier bed in the end after the fall from the accumulation, with the drum Venturi difference in the shape of Yu Bing gravel port is not rules, and is layered into. In the mainland are glaciers and valley glacier ice boulders port development.

d.) port ice gravel terraces :
On both sides of the glacier, as the rock wall and lateral moraine endothermic more glaciers and ice on both sides than the middle to low, so ice-melt water on the pool in this, the formation of ice side of the river, and bring ice water substances, wait until the ice to melt, these substances accumulate in Glacier Valley on both sides of the formation of ice gravel terraces port, it developed in the valley glacier.

e.) pot hole :
Plain ice water often a circular depression, known as the pot hole. Its formation is due to depletion of glaciers, some residual ice was isolated and buried in ice water sediments, when melting ice caused by collapse, caused by pot hole.

f.) snake-like mound :
Snake Hill is a long and narrow twists and turns of the terrain, was snake-like bending,steep,narrower, and its extended broadly in line with the direction of the flow of glaciers consistent glaciers are mainly distributed in the mainland areas.

Snake-like dome of the main causes are:
1. Glacier, the ice along the glacier melt water infiltration fissure under the glacier, in the glacier at the bottom of the flow of the tunnel under the formation of ice when the ice completely melts, the tunnel in the gravel on the deposition and the formation of snake-like mound.
2. In the summer, an increase in ice melt water, ice sediments at the end of the formation of glacier ice water delta, wait until next summer, once again retreating glaciers, and then ice water to form a delta, and so constantly repeated, not even a cold water delta together, they form a serpentine-shaped mound moniliforme had.
Conclusion

Valley glacier landscape type is the most complex and diverse, can exceed more than 20 kinds. There are obvious vertical distribution. The above the snow line in the angle peaks and cirque ridge edge for heavy erosion landform; snow line until the embankment until the end moraine is U-shaped valley, lateral moraine embankment and moraine hills mainly erosion, geomorphology moraine , glacier terminal moraine embankment is finally represented moraine topography, the end moraine margin for fans and ice water outside the red plains of ice accumulation of landforms.

Continental glacier landscape type is relatively simple, only a dozen for the horizontal distribution. Moraine embankment to the end for the sector, in order to mainly moraine topography, development moraine hills and ice retreat end moraine embankment, outside the terminal moraine embankment to ice accumulation mainly geomorphic, development outside the red plains, deltas and ice water pot hole.

And above a glacier landforms ideal model. In fact glacier activities will be affected by climate, such as the valley glacier as an example, the oceanic climate glacier activity, and erosion of the more developed landforms; continental climate glacier activity weak, eroded terrain on the less developed.

The movement of glaciers

2009-01-21T23:19:00.000-08:00

When ice accumulation of more and more thick, due to ice body itself formed by the weight of the pressure, coupled with the effects of gravity, you can make ice at the bottom of the flow occurs along the downward slope. Glacier movement in the river flow faster than the much smaller, one-year forward only dozens of meters to several hundred meters. The movement of glaciers in general very slow.

And the impact of glacier movement factors include the following:

(1) the ground slope: the greater the slope of the moving sooner.

(2) glacier thickness and temperature. The thicker the ice is greater pressure, the greater the kinetic energy, the faster movement. Higher temperature when the activities of ice stronger, faster mobile.

(3) the ground smoothness. More smooth surface resistance is smaller glaciers mobile, mobile sooner, on the contrary, if the rough surface, the greater the resistance, then moving slowly.

(4) ice-melting content. If the temperature increases, part of the ice melted into water, the ice-melting content increased, increased mobility, glaciers move faster

(5) glaciers carry the effect of rock debris. Rock debris carried by glaciers more, then the greater the pressure, the stronger the kinetic energy, mobile sooner.

Continental glacier screwdown crust due to the weight of the General Assembly, the central part of the base rock will become irregular disk, not into a massive, but like a lot of plane-like movement. Valley glacier sliding part of the fastest in the glaciers at the top, at the bottom of the rock base due to friction while moving very slowly. The speed of glacier movement in various parts of the same glaciers are different in different parts of glaciers will have different forms of movement, the movement of glaciers by internal flow and sliding at the bottom of the composition of two parts. In each cross-section of the glacier, its surface is greater than at the central rate of both sides because both sides of the rock by glaciers on both sides of the resistance; the same ice surface is also moving faster than its in-house.

Generally speaking, the middle of the flow of a faster rate than on both sides, at the top than the bottom faster. The movement of glaciers is mainly composed of two parts, one part of the campaign is the internal movement of glaciers, increasing from bottom to top; another part of the movement is at the bottom of the sliding glacier, known as "the end of Waterloo" , is at the bottom of glacial melt water because of the smooth rocks at the end of the slide. In the movement of glaciers, the slip at the end of the campaign is greater than its own internal glacier movement. Therefore, the movement of glaciers is mainly relying on "the end of Waterloo." For each glacier is concerned, have a stacking area and ablation area, separated from the snow line, in the online snow and ice melt ice plot equal role. Accumulation in the top of the snow belt continuously added, while the valleys on both sides of the supply of a large number of ice and snow avalanche; ablation zone occurred in the melting ice and snow and evaporation.

If added to the volume of glaciers and depletion of the volume just to balance, the glaciers on the stay is no longer advance; if added to the amount in excess of wear and tear, then to move forward into the glacier; but if more than the addition of the volume of wear and tear, the glacier retreat backwards. The so-called retreat, does not refer to the retreat of glaciers true, because glaciers are fixed and moving down, so is the retreat of glaciers shrinking range. At present, most of the world's glaciers are in retreat phase.

In addition, before and after the addition of glaciers could be divided into two bands (that is, the accumulation zone and ablation zone), the glacier can also be divided into two parts from top to bottom, above some of the more brittle fracture zone known as the (zone of fracture); below bear part above the weight and pressure, such as a plastic body as slowly as the movement of the sliding belt (zone of flow). In addition, the speed of glacier flow as a result of changes in flow caused by done (extending flow) and compressed stream (compressing flow) in Glacier Valley, slowing down the slope of the paragraph, extrusion and thickening of the ice to form a compressed stream; the other hand, ice layer occurred elongated form done flow.

As the glaciers of the fluid around the lower part of different ideas, Kennedy brittle upper body strength of the ice is very low, coupled with friction on both sides of the valley and glacial valley beneath the ground level of undulating terrain, so the surface of many glacier crevasse (crevasses) . Glacier crevasse is the most obvious, the most abundant structure, the upper body Kennedy brittle ice rattle when the ice below under continuous flow of the role of the enormous cracks. Crevasse is a tension crack is due to the different glacier movement arising. The location of glaciers in different games produce different crevasse, in general the main crevasse include:

(1) horizontal crevasse when the glacier movement, glacier at the bottom of rugged rocks, so that the speed of glacier flow different, when the glaciers formed to accelerate the flow would have done the horizontal crevasse, horizontal crevasse and glacier flow vertical direction.

(2) the edge of glacier crevasse Movement, along the valley walls generated by pulling trailers.

(3) vertical crevasse expansion when the glaciers began to form at the end of glacier crevasse, vertical crevasse and parallel to the direction of glacier flow.

(4) radial crevasse in the glacier is the most peripheral, when the glacier developed into a prominent part of the circle formed.

Glacier factors control the flow of ice thickness, temperature, slope characteristics, valleys and glaciers in the shape of the rock and by taking the amount of such debris. If the glaciers at the bottom and between caused by a layer of ice-melting water film on the movement of glaciers can be of great help. Regardless of the movement of glaciers by which factors, has always been forward movement of glaciers.

The distribution of glaciers

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Modern glacier surface area accounts for about 10 percent of global products, including Antarctica and Greenland, the most important area of Antarctica glaciers accounted for 85%, and the total volume of global ice in Antarctica, about 91 percent; Greenland glaciers are share of the global area of 12%, glacier volume total, compared with 8 percent.

1. World Glacier District

Area (km2)

Antarctica 12,700,000

Greenland 1,800,000

Canada 153,000 Islands group

Mountains of Central Asia 125,000

Spitsbergen Islands 58,000

54,000 Russian Arctic Islands

Alaska 52,000

Andes 25,000

Western Canada 25,000

Iceland 12,000 Scandinavian 4,200

3,600 Alps

Caucasus Mountain 2,000

New Zealand 1,000

United States 530

Other 800

2. A well-known large glaciers

Name and Location Area (km2) Length (km)

Wanaka ice ridge, Iceland 8,400 ---

that glaciers, Alaska 5,000 100

Fitz into Ko glaciers, the Pamirs 1,350 77

Even about glaciers, Norway 855 70

Great Aletsch Glacier, Switzerland 115 26

Types of glaciers

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Mainly based on the type of glacier ice shape, size and terrain conditions which is divided into the following three categories:

1. Continental glaciers (continental glaciers)

Also known as ice (ice sheet) for the scale of the broad masses of continental glacier glacier coverage in the mainland or highland areas, all of the mountains, valley and plains all be covered. The central part of the higher, ice from the central to move around in any direction, not melt directly into the sea, which covers the entire land from the edge of the land directly into the sea, it said the mainland glaciers. Usually can reach 3000 meters in thickness, some were round or oval.

Broad continental glacier ice have very thick body, its own weight in the strong pressure from the glacier extends constantly expand, with an area of constantly increasing, it was into the local small-scale ice tongue outriggers layer compared with the ice cap (ice cap) if the land development of glaciers into the sea, the huge body of ice collapsed into the sea because the sea ice body than light, will become the tip of the (iceberg), the Arctic sea steeple-shaped tip of the most positive is the Arctic Circle all the island's ice slide caused by the sea; the Antarctic near the tip of the mostly flat-topped tables were shaped by covering the Antarctic continent on the end of the gradual collapse of large ice floating in the sea due.

2. Valley glacier (valley glaciers)

Occurred in the mountains or snow above the snow line, the mainstream by the glacier and its tributary the composition of the sub-alpine glaciers throughout the system. When moving down the ice along the valley, cross the snow line to continue to lower its liquidity and rivers similar circumstances, known as the valley glacier. Glacier Valley to the snow line for the sector, with a clear accumulated snow and ice melt zone area. Long valley glacier may be a few kilometers to tens of kilometers away, several hundred meters thick. If the separate existence of a glacier, called single valley glacier; by several glaciers sinks and is called composite valley glacier.

3. Foothills glaciers (piedmont glaciers)

When the valley glacier outflow from the mountain Taniguchi arrived in flat areas, ice to the plane to start or expand in the foothill areas a vast ice sheets, occupy a substantial area, the flow very slowly, known as the piedmont glacier.

Above all the different types of glaciers can be converted each other, when the snow line lower valley glacier gradually expanded to the foothills of the extension of glaciers has become foothills. When the cold wet climate, snow increased the scope of the expansion of the foothills to the plains of glaciers are continuing to expand at the same time because of snow and ice buried thickening and the formation of continental mountain glaciers.

The formation of glaciers

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In polar and alpine regions, the climate cold, snow all the year round, when the snow accumulation on the ground, if the temperature dropped to below zero, you can be its own role or the pressure caused by the re-crystallization Snow Grains, known as the firn (firn). When the snow would bring to more deep buried firn, ice crystallization becoming rough, and the density of firn firn due to the existence of particles in the air to reduce the size increased, so has become more dense firn and the formation of blue glacial ice, glacier ice formed, due to its own gravity to form a great Plastomers, slow movement along the slopes or in the ice flows slowly under the pressure of the formation of glaciers.

Glacier is an open system, the role of glaciers in the under gravity flow. Snow piled up in the way into the glacier system, and changes in the formation of ice, ice in its own weight under the pressure brought by the accumulation of outward flow of ice in the ablation zone by way of evaporation and melting left the system. Ablation in the accumulation rate of speed and balance between the system determines the size of glaciers.

Glacier before and after can be divided into two parts, or the upper reaches of the latter part of the glacier known as the accumulation zone (zone of accumulation); in the downstream part of the former or the glacier known as the belt (zone of ablation) the dividing line is the snow line, in the the snow line of snow accumulation and ablation volume in the balance.

About River Conservation

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Rivers and human nature thanks to a generous gift of human origin, development and have relied on the river trip. West, such as the Euphrates, the Tigris River basin; China's Yellow River Basin are all breeds the cradle of human cultural development. Throughout the hydrological cycle, all along the river plays an important role. Land, water, river water, including the vast majority. Therefore human drinking water can not be non-reliance on the river, in addition to the physiological indispensable, the rivers, shipping, communication and the availability of, linking the groups to bring people to a great convenience. Alluvial river delta is derived from grain, food upon which the growth of the main land. In China, the main origin of rice in the Yangtze River Delta in Thailand is the Mekong River Basin. Ancient and modern man's use of the river, despite the different ways, today's awareness of the use of more diversified rivers. In addition to irrigation shipping, the more power generation and metallurgical and other industrial uses, The list goes on.

With the increased use of the worries caused by the increase will be, relatively speaking. Such as river pollution is the world all the industrial countries must be dealt with and resolved issues. However, faced with this issue there are two types of countries, one is already very high level of industrial countries, such as the United States the people of these countries with the Government on environmental protection have a high degree of consensus with the concept of heart, their quality of life is not simply the number of control on the use of natural ability, but to give the number of natural love and care. In other words, it can be harmonious with nature, to what extent. This is an inherent spirit of the demand; another country is still in the development of the industrial countries, they are the only indicator that is to upgrade people's living standards, increasing gross national product and industrial standards and so on. The environment such as rivers, forests and so on, the intention of seizing the desire, and never return or never thought to return. The results of economic growth, and the rich countries have gradually, but the river pollution, ecological damage, the painful price is precarious in the money people can not see! For them, seeking food and clothing for all the people is the most important, this is also the national government and people attach great importance to the concerns and focus.

However, the comprehensive development plan, taking into account the people's spiritual and material needs of life, for each country, will need to be this perfect idea. Perhaps not now, but the future must be! Taiwan's major construction projects, it was also not environmentally friendly, but now may not be the same. Nevertheless, the comprehensive development plan is not difficult to regulate on how to draw a right to timely perfect blueprint, but in the implementation of this plan, the need to give up and sacrifice. It would be the focus of people watching! In fact, the word willing, is that there are homes there were, and vice versa.

The use of rivers and comprehensive development

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a, the use of rivers

Geography on the river in one of the resources as an important and regarded as a hub for a variety of resource development. The use of the river can be divided into the following aspects:

First, rivers and drinking water

In the power industry has not yet developed areas, the rivers are important beverages. It is generally important towns and a local development center, were distributed in the River. The distribution of the main reasons in addition to general shipping things, and drinks and washing water were taken from the river. Even well-developed metropolis of electricity residents use the water of its water from the river also.

Second, rivers and agricultural use

Growth of agricultural products in the germination period, the moisture needs of the rain. Without the rain, then in relation to depend on irrigation. In the mainland provinces, the highest density of irrigation canals for the Yangtze River Delta and the Chengdu Plain. Therefore also the most densely population. Taiwan drought depends on irrigation reservoirs.

Third, the river and industrial water

Metropolitan factory developed areas, many of the industrial water demand. So often the industrial zone near the river bank, or near river banks are.

Generally speaking geographically:

(1) near riverbank

(2) of the rendezvous point for the river

(3) For the Riverside

Often an important condition for industrial factories.

Fourth, rivers and hydro -

Hydraulic geographically considered to be the driving force for one of the resources on Taiwan, undulating terrain, and rainfall, and it is very rich in hydropower resources. On the hydraulic capacity, the Chuoshui River's largest, followed by Tachia. Today, Sun Moon Lake's hydro-electric power project is to use part of the Chuoshui River water; Tianlun Tachia River Power Plant is to use a part of the hydraulic. Tachia Momoyama collection, the Central Jianshan, Beacon green, etc. leucocephala Shannan, two slope north of the water, into a valley (Longitndital Valley) and its origins and also the Department of Taiwan Province, one of three wet, rainy summer, winter is also very rich, small changes in river flow, drainage area also widely and become suitable for the construction of the reservoir area. Therefore, water is mountainous areas of Taiwan as an important resource.

B, the comprehensive development of river

First, the comprehensive development of the thrust is:

Consider the natural conditions of land, combined with economic, social and cultural views of the integrated decision-making, so that an integrated land use and development, the preservation of various industries in the region to adjust handout, but for the purposes of social welfare.

Second, the comprehensive development of content:

Homeland is a comprehensive development of population, food, living elements of stability problems. In other words, for a variety of interrelated resource development plans. Project costs less, and to be completed by a high degree of development, is the comprehensive development of strengths. With regard to the comprehensive development plan to have all aspects of the river have the following types:

(1) dam construction (Dam) to make into a reservoir

(2) hydro-electric power

(3) to facilitate the shipping

(4) so that the rivers and canals between the navigable rivers

(5) the supply of agricultural water

(6) the supply of industrial water

(7) to the above-mentioned driving force for the development of hydropower industry

(8) in the reservoir around the development of tourism industry

(9) the use of hydropower development sulfur fertilizer ammonia plant

Dam's construction as the center of the river development plan. Upon completion of a dam, power generation and industry will grow vigorously at the same time, you can adjust the water to flood control, also available for irrigation water, the cultivated fields to engage in height. And fish in reservoirs, coupled with water rich in wooded, become elements of tourism. So on the terms of the comprehensive development of river that is the paragraph by paragraph river dam located development.

Third, the comprehensive development of the examples

The United States in 1933, President Roosevelt's New Deal in the (New deal), the Tennessee Valley began working for a large-scale integrated development plan, that is, China's so-called "Tian domain security plan."

"Tian domain security plan"-Tennesscc Valley Autharity

Untapped before the Tennessee River floods frequently, resulting in very low standard of living of farmers. At that time, plans to build 30 dams, power generation equipment have. Since the completion of all the existing three million kilowatts of generation capacity. Tian domain security area because of the hydro-electric power, so one after another chain aluminum industry flourishing, and the sulfur ammonia chemical fertilizer plant, especially the first development and sale of cheap fertilizer on farmers, and their manner of electricity are also inexpensive and In the life of electrical equipment are at the same time in forestry, but also contribute to water conservation, landscape beautification. Due to irrigation of agricultural production increased, and in Bashang gate devices in order to facilitate shipping. So while the completion of the comprehensive development plan. This geographical previous standard of living of the residents in the United States about 45 percent below average, since the plan is completed, probably to its average over more than 50 percent. Comprehensive development plan shows the effectiveness of the splendid.

The cycle of the role of river topography

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U.S. scientists terrain Davis's first cycle of the concept of the creation of the river, when the river began to cut the original ground (has never been erosion and destruction of the ground), the river that is the beginning of the cycle. A cycle from start to finish the process to form the river of history. And at every stage of the process have different topographical features. Taii be divided into three stages, and early childhood, prime, and old age.

A childhood:

When the ground began to undermine the original, early childhood activities have started nurturing it. This phase of the topographical features of the cross section for the valley V-shaped surface, there is no flood plain along the river cross-strait development, the watershed between the two rivers is also a broad level, and rivers are often capture the phenomenon occurred. The hard rock in the river, which has occurred in falls or rapids. This phenomenon is particularly common in early childhood, to the former prime upcoming eradication. Childhood this stage is to make the original ground level to increase or expand the ups and downs and downs of the times, towards the end of childhood, the terrain is characterized by high mountains and deep valley, the ground is extremely rugged.

B prime

Prime period, the terrain is still a high mountain scene in a deep valley, the river began widening the role of the watershed between the rivers as a result of the increase in river terrace to minimize is the sharp ridge. River on both sides have begun to have a considerable range of the alluvial plain of the emergence of freedom of meandering rivers in the flood plain meandering flow. Than the width of the river bed meandering stream with only the width of a little wide, and at this time, river rock and fully adapt to the nature and structure of the distribution of rivers, often in rock vulnerable areas. Terrain for the whole of the current cycle could reach most of those ups and downs, hillsides and valley side slope, often the criteria for relief, rather than by the high valley at the end of the distance to the top of that. In addition, one of the original juvenile lake or waterfall, etc., to the current period has been eliminated.

C old age

Through childhood and prime erosion, the uplift of the original surface has been eroded to near sea level, and because the river will not flow to the sea with the gravity of kinetic energy to erode the ground (due to sea-level setting for the erosion datum). At this stage the valley is extremely broad, and vertical and horizontal two aspects are very gentle slope. The whole ground covered with a thick layer of debris, the debris has been weathering become very fine particles of clay or sandy soil. Significantly the development of flood plains, rivers in the broad and tortuous river flows slowly. Many times greater than the width of the valley with meandering stream. Hejian watershed as sharp as prime. Lakes, swamps and wetlands (Marshes) appear in the flood plains is not, as exists in childhood Hejian region. Due to the nature of the differences in rock, so that changes in the role of the river, in the prime of life which very significantly to the current period have been obvious. To the elderly when the final phase of the ground may have been a little plain, slightly peneplain, when the ground has been very close to the erosion datum.

D rejuvenate the role of

From childhood to old age as a cycle, because of the impact of external changes, such as rapid sea-level rise or decline sharply, so that the sudden erosion of base-level change, then the river erosion and deposition of the effect of rapid changes followed, often in prime terrain or old age, the emergence of childhood terrain characteristics. The occurrence of the phenomenon known as the Hui role, often forming the valley valley, river access, or digging meandering stream, such as cutting of the terrain.

Alluvial river terrain

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The role of the alluvial river

If the upper reaches of rivers and tributaries are taking too much or carrying sediment force is likely to weaken once the deposition, when the river water flow along the river bed slope can be water from soil erosion to the lower reaches of gravel removal, which discussed the role of the river as follows:

1. The impact of silt content increased, leading to a reduction in the reasons for removal:

1) The river flows through the soft rock region

Silt content of the river will increase, such as the Loess Plateau of China's Yellow River flows through the middle reaches of the sediment concentration increased, resulting in the prevalence of sediment downstream, resulting in Huanghuai Plain.

2) climate change

Flash floods, taken off a lot of sediment, such as Taiwan summer and more typhoons, each time after the storm, so that the river sediment concentration increased, in order to defy the power of removal, then precipitation occurs.

3) the human factor

Human river upstream logging, such as, inadequate water and soil conservation, rain water erosion, soil erosion, leading to increased sediment downstream.

The impact of river flow slowly, moving force resulting weakening of the reasons

1) to reduce the bed slope

General river upstream slope but to enter a plain, slope by the sharp decline in velocity from acute slow, handling is also followed weaker. The influence of sediment was deposited in the mountain prevalent, resulting in the foothills of the alluvial fan, such as China's two foot of Tianshan oasis.

2) river wider range

Rivers flowing through valleys, a great flow, but out of a canyon, into the plains, flow rates widened, the flow rate slowed down, Sui-sheng deposition. As the Yangtze River by the Three Gorges in Yichang deposition occurred in the east, resulting in the Jianghan Plain.

3) reduction of river flow

Removal and river flow is directly proportional. Therefore, to reduce the river flow, its removal will naturally reduce excess sediment deposition will occur, so the river branches, the deposition of very Sheng, such as the Minjiang River in China due to some of the following Guanxian Dujiangyan irrigation works, will be divided into Minjiang inside and outside the two rivers, the flow reduction, removal of power decentralization, Sui-sheng precipitation.

4) the water flow path blocked

Landslides or cave-ins, a large number of sand blocking the river so that flow down to form a deposition.

Alluvial river terrain

Because of the topography of the river alluvial from mobile, it is important are:

1. Deposition cone (a l l u v i a l c o n e)

Since the height of the mountains, river discharge, the influence of gravel piled up in front steep mountain slope into a range of large and small cone of the terrain is.

2.Alluvial fan (a l l u v i a l fan)

Mountain rivers flow radical, one flowing into the ground but leave the valley, the gradient dropped, the flow rate dropped sharply in front of a large number of sediment in the low-width Department Yamaguchi alluvial and fan-so start to form a fan-plain, is called "alluvial fan" such as the Chengdu Plain in Sichuan.

3. Flood plain (Flood plain)

Cross-strait rivers often flood during the flood period, when in flood, flood the kidnapped with the river sediment deposited on the proliferation of reach of the ground, the formation of the low edge of the red layer (alluvim), is to "flood plain." Rivers in the flood plain on the flow, because of flooding so that sediment in the river on both sides have a natural levee, called the natural levee (naturallevees).