Suspected fake moon landing 40 years is not bad 22% of Americans believe that a fraud

Believe that the moon landing in 1969 is purely American lie of the ratio from 6% of 1979 soared to more than 22 percent now. Show at least 60 million Americans have a "moon landing conspiracy theory" believers, think someone landing on the moon pictures are in the Nevada desert filming the military restricted area. 

 The United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) will be in July this year to commemorate the Apollo 11 manned lunar landing spacecraft 40th anniversary, a purely lunar landing hoax about the conspiracy theory is also more and more rife and rampant. 1979 has only 6% of Americans believe that the Apollo 11 lunar landing forgery, 20 years later increased to 11 percent, a more recent survey found that more than 22% increase. 

 July 1969 Apollo 11 spacecraft to use than a modern cell phone also "original" navigation technology, carrying astronauts Neil Armstrong (Neil Armstrong) and (Buzz Aldrin) first landed on the moon. 

 Since 1979, however, began to spread all over the world "conspiracy theory" ︰ purely Apollo 11 lunar landing hoax, NASA lunar landing provided by the lens back in a few months ago on the film in advance Well, lunar images are in Nevada desert state closed military zone "51 Zone" (Area 51) shooting. 

 A conspiracy theorist to believe that the United States because of this super-concocted fraud, from the following motives and realities: 

 1. American wanted in the space race to beat the former Soviet Union. President Kennedy was assassinated 10 years ago boasted the Moon, difficult to recover the team of four horses. NASA at the time the national budget was 40 billion yuan, it is imperative that the people trust the money is not wasted. And look all over the world in only succeed and not to fail. 

 2.1969 in the summer, the former Soviet Union only one month is necessary to launch its own manned lunar landing spacecraft. At that time, the United States Government is plunged into the Vietnam morass, fake moon landing hoax transferable American's attention. 

 3. 1969 lunar science and technology is very original, is simply not possible for the success of manned lunar landing, can only "fake." Apollo 11 spacecraft computer even today's personal computers are not such as, when the satellite positioning skills are now used to find a way not qualify, but still able to find much in the 250,000 miles only a few square yards of a quiet sea? Even if President Bush announced its intention to return to the moon, NASA said that a further 11 years to do so. 

 Let NASA is deeply embarrassing, and even have been involved in the design of the Apollo spacecraft, former‧ Engineer Bill (Bill Kaysing) and a former NASA Astronaut Brian ‧(Brian OLeary), do not believe the American board on the moon. the Apollo program was a consultant, and even have doubts about him was shocking. 

 said that he was the most do not understand is why the moon landing vehicle quietly, totally can not hear the engine sound? Could it be the only movie studio props, a few wires were slowly "landing"? With his understanding of science and technology at that time, he did not consider the possibility of landing on the moon. Even if the land on the moon successfully, the chances to come back alive, only 0.0017%, equivalent to dead. 

 In addition to NASA's fake moon landing conspiracy theory, there are more incredible claims: Armstrong is "the first person to land on the moon," he and two other astronauts did the success of the moon in 1969. But then technology simply can not put their safety back to earth, so the United States in order to honor their sacrifice on the moon, the safe return of the Earth are the U.S. government long ago found the secret of the "counterfeit substitute." 

 Photo Kai suspicious person 

 NASA for "false believers" (Hoax Believers, HB) laughed, but released in 1969 on the 10,000 in 1972 to land on the moon mission photos. HB Meng hunt for bugs in the photographs, especially some of the most attractive light suspicion. 

 HB pointed out that the photo shows towards the lens, can be seen from the shadow of the sun to turn their backs on him. However, it was surprising that his predecessor had bright white, even the space filled with brightly colored American flag are obviously for someone in front of him lighting. 

 HB also queried, why step on the moon astronauts will leave behind sand footprint, weighs 10 tons of lunar vehicles leave any traces? Even when the moon vehicles circled the ground slowly decline, the jet did not actually open any of blowing sand? 

 When Armstrong and HB look plug on the Moon when the flag on the ground, one can not help in an uproar: the national flag there is not even a shadow! They further found that astronauts, lunar landing vehicle and the shadow of the rock has , some east, some west. This is only one possibility: have a number of lighting around the scene. 

 Scientists dispel doubts 

 NASA scientists are ridiculous for these queries. They reminded the HB, the moon is not the Earth, scientific principles can not be fully applicable, in particular, are light. Not because of the moon's atmosphere, the light can not be extended, but it has great space refraction, so it seems very strange. 

 NASA said that because of bright sunlight on the moon in particular, refraction space also wide and therefore Astronaut cameras and the naked eye could not see the stars, photos show the dark sky. 

 Scientists pointed out that the moon did not air. In a vacuum state, the 3000 pounds of sand on the jet and land on the moon car wheels indifferent. Instead, one person trampled boots, footprints appear immediately. 

 As to why the shadow of the direction of different flickering? NASA said that this was because the three-dimensional image to twice the space will create a perspective distortion. Together with the surface of the moon will light refraction Department has always been to go back, resulting in no shadow of the Stars and Stripes. 

 Two years ago, a television reporter asked 78-year-old face-to-face, it is necessary to take the Bible, swear him landing on the moon is not false. Journalist anger hit punched nose, almost legal action. HB think this is false as evidenced by landing on the moon, after all, a 40-year secrecy too much pressure. 

 HB said that the greatest evidence of false claims that are human landing on the moon, the moon every night for over 30 years even though the sky is no longer pegged to touch the moon. So one would naturally say that the progress of science and technology more and more, and then land on the moon should be easy.

Waterspouts

Tornadoes and other weather does not confuse the vortex, such as dust volume, they usually do not come from a thunderstorm, are completely different forms of natural phenomena, in accordance with the United States National Weather Service tornado-related FAQ, a waterspout is a tornado in the water -- - usually means that the water of non-super tornado monomer. Dragon roll is usually along the southeastern coast of the United States, particularly in southern Florida and the Gulf of Mexico within the reef, and may appear in the ocean, bays and lakes all over the world. Waterspouts are tornadoes in the definition of a. Its destructive than the most powerful tornado prairie small and weak, but they are still very dangerous. Dragon boat roll can be blown over, damaging the vessel, when struck the land when there is more damage and killed. When the water spouts are likely to produce or in coastal waters have been visible when the United States National Weather Service will often issue special marine warnings, or when the water spouts to the land mobile when a tornado warning issued

Tornado Climatology

Clearly the United States suffered more than any other country, and including the devastating tornado hit. However, the tornado actually happen in everywhere in the world; the regions affected by the number of statistics, the world's largest tornado happened region, is the United Kingdom, in particular, for even in England. New Zealand and Uruguay also has a small part of a strong tornado activity. In Canada, an average of 80 tornadoes occur each year, 2 people were killed and 20 others injured and led to loss of tens of millions of dollars. The recent killings of tornadoes in July 4, 2000 attacks in Canada Alberta Lake pine needles, resulting in 11 deaths. 

 On average, the United States suffered 100,000 thunderstorms each year, more than 1000 tornado hit, killing around 50 people were killed. The United States has recorded the most deadly tornadoes occurred in March 18, 1925, crossed the south-eastern Missouri, southern Illinois and northern Indiana Tri-State tornado, resulting in 695 deaths. In the day more than 6 is considered a tornado outbreak tornadoes. In April 3, 1974, history has recorded the largest outbreak of tornadoes has 148 tornadoes, including the emergence of six F5 (class) and 23 F4 (level) of the tornado; nicknamed the "super outbreak." Another strong storm similar lines are Pam Sunday tornado outbreak, which in April 11, 1965 attacked the central and western United States.

Tornado classification

The intensity of tornadoes are from "Fujita Pearson Tornado grade" decision (see Fujita series). Intensity may be high-resolution Doppler radar wind speed data or structural damage from the empirical data compared with the works to be. Similarly, attention and should not describe the intensity of any size and width of the tornado. 

 When bad weather or when coming prediction when a series of Zhuifeng family often go looking for a tornado to remain vigilant and inform the local meteorological agency. In the United States, skywarn software-measuring device, usually on behalf of the local Sheriff to complete a similar role. In addition, some individuals, like the famous storm tracer, favorite track thunderstorms and tornadoes that they go into much real and scientific aspects. 

 Thunderstorms tracer much try to make a probe into a tornado coming his way, the aim of analyzing its internal structure, but since 1990, only five succeeded in throwing the needle inside.

Tornadoes common sense and security

According to Environment Canada data, tornado blowing directly over the chances for the 1200 death of one extreme. Some people may amend the era or region, but the actual possibility of even lower. Tornado does a year in economic and material caused millions of dollars in losses, unemployment and casualties. 

 Annually in the beginning of tornado season, in the tornado area schools and the media told the public sector to spend time hazard and how education can improve the survival rate in the tornado. In the United States, people have often been recommended buy NOAA weather radios. They are relatively inexpensive, only the current 20 U.S. dollars spent, it will receive the United States National Weather Bureau (National Weather Service) issued a weather warning of the danger. Alarm at the same time on the radio and television broadcast, the majority of societies have civil defense alarm, in a tornado is about to consider will be activated prior to arrival. 

 Tornado warning in the release, all members of the public be notified to the refuge area. In most buildings, if possible, recommend to find the central room with no windows or below ground corridor. If a tornado hit the building, in respect of the possession in the interior of the people, can lead to substantial debris Down, it is proposed that squatting in front of solid beam, or hiding under sturdy furniture. However, the tornado to make such as when a mobile home such as light building had sustained heavy casualties. In this housing residents will be notified before a tornado evacuated from their homes, looking for more solid shelter, regardless of their travel to the designated safe haven or a friend's home nearby. In some areas, storm cellar is also a refuge for people. 

 When the tornado struck, the vehicle situation is extremely dangerous. If the tornado is visible, long distance, and the current traffic, then you can from the tornado path, methods are straight-line path along with the tornado at right angles to the direction of mobile. Otherwise, please try to quickly and safely park their vehicles in the line outside (even if ex post facto from the soil to find out your car than it is to stay in better on the road caused the accident), and looking for solid buildings or trenches as a bunker. Remember: in any case, be sure not to close when a tornado left in the car. In the strong wind caused by a tornado, no vehicles are very easily be rolled up and thrown. 

 Some people choose to in a storm shelter under the large bridge, but those places are not the best shelter. Normandy is located in Oklahoma's National Weather Service, have done a report for discussion at May 3, 1999 Oklahoma tornado occurred in the attack, the land bridge as a cover body uses. At that time a land bridge has three tornadoes in Oklahoma City on the route, each bridge has at least one person died in a tornado. Bridge building in a variety of forms, and many of which fly in strong wind and the fragments before and will not provide any effective protection. In addition, because of people under the bridge or the bridge next to free parking caused congestion, is likely to impede other road vehicles, thereby indirectly deprived latecomers the opportunity to escape.

What is a squall line?

Strong gusts are mean. Squall line (squallline) are by a number of strong thunderstorm convection cell array composed of one narrow line of strong convective weather belt life than the average cell length thunderstorms, usually can be maintained 12 ~ 24 hours, in the horizontal spatial distribution of about 200 km. 

 Based on past observational data analysis, the squall line system, often there will be thunder and lightning, heavy rain, strong winds, hail, tornadoes and other severe weather phenomena, after the passage of the squall line will have a clear cold air, making the temperature suddenly dropped, and there will be significant changes in wind direction . 

 Icon 7, seven shares radar echo map, which line the narrow band is the strong echo squall line. 

 

 ● how the formation of squall lines? 

 In Taiwan near the squall line occurred in the spring with the plum rainy season during the cold season, when the turn of the atmosphere in a relatively unstable, when the warm air when cold and dry air, its interface can be triggered by "squall line" the emergence of . 

 Most of the squall line and cold front-related activities, mainly in the ground before the cold front 100 ~ 500 km of warm areas, but sometimes in the front or rear front Front happen, sometimes, the squall line and frontal rain band itself is very difficult distinction to make.

How the formation of tornadoes?

Whether land or sea dragon roll, and its formation conditions are very similar, basically the amount must have spin and have a very unstable air disturbances, or hot and humid air and cold air radiolysis intense cooperation, and, therefore, tornadoes common in the temperate mid-latitude cyclone (extratropicalcyclone) and strong convection in the vicinity of thunderstorms. 

  According to National Taiwan University Professor Wang Chongyue 1982 study, the formation of a tornado in Taiwan to squall line (squallline), such as typhoons and the southwest air current caused by a maximum of 3 categories, with Category 3 of the most destructive. Today (2007) in April 18 occurred in the Tainan area of tornadoes, the Department caused by the squall line.

Which country most tornadoes?

The world's tornadoes are the most places the United States, primarily in the United States in central and western Great Plains (including Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Missouri and Illinois, etc.), because the west side of the Rocky Mountains from blowing dry air , the south side of the Gulf of Mexico has the warm air blowing, the two share the results of flow intersection, making the atmosphere very unstable in the region, forming the so-called tornado corridor. 

 Statistical data show that the United States happened 700 times the average annual volume of LU Long, and Florida, an annual average of 40-50 times happened the Dragon Vol. 

 The United States because of the frequent occurrence of a tornado, it attaches great importance to tornado forecasting, when the radar data show a "hook-shaped echo," the meteorologists will have to closely monitor and timely warnings to remind people to do a good job protection measures.

How strong a tornado wind?

Associated with a tornado because the wind is too strong, the general wind speed measurement devices have often been destroyed, it is difficult to measure the reliability. However, according to the degree of damage to buildings, as well as the dusty objects hitting power to estimate its wind speed roughly 100 meters per second, and sometimes as high as 200 meters per second. Even if the invasion of Taiwan with the calendar year compared to the strong typhoon, near the typhoon center is also the maximum wind speed rarely exceeded 80 meters per second, the visible tornado typhoon is much larger than the rotation of wind power.

What would cause a tornado disaster?

Tornadoes are usually accompanied by strong winds, heavy showers, hail, lightning and other phenomena, by passing through along the tornado path, common trees were uprooted, people, vehicles, livestock will be rolled up, the structure of the poor will be the destruction of buildings and caused by power outage or gas pipeline rupture caused by fire or explosion, etc., so be very severe casualties and losses. Taiwan due to weather and terrain constraints, the smaller tornadoes, relatively minor damage, but tornadoes may occur in the region, remain on guard.

What is tornado

The English name for tornado, are referring to happened in the bottom or self-cumulonimbus cumulonimbus down to the ground or the sea of strong spin column, the naked eye often see into tube-like funnel cloud or clouds. Happened on land are called LU Long-volume, on the sea for water spouts. 

 In the atmosphere, the tornado is a small area, the power of a strong and highly destructive air vortex, and its diameter from tens of meters to several hundred meters and the average of about 250 meters. Since the distant look, it seemed a dark gray funnel or trunk, since the cloud base stretching down to the ground, the whole column in itself funnel cloud around the central axis of rapid rotation, and at the same time moving forward. Yun-chu, sometimes hanging in the air reverberating, sometimes lower, and on the ground, the regular place as a serious disaster. Tornado path length, average of about 5-10 km in between, but also record up to 300 kilometers; tornado's life cycle, the shortest less than one minute, but some can be up to several hours, with an average of about 10 minutes.

The causes of tornadoes

Produce tornadoes are the mother giant cumulonimbus, which dozens of kilometers wide cloud may rise to 16 kilometers altitude. We will pot of cold water heating, that can be found after heating the water will rise, the upper cold water will be lowered, while the sunlight so that the ground temperature, the convection will produce the same phenomenon. 

 Air resulting in the block of cotton-like white clouds, this is the cumulus, cumulus continue the development of the formation of cumulonimbus. At this point, "latent heat" on the occurrence of an important role. 

 Plot snow internal heating due to latent heat of constant cloud of air, resulting in a strong updraft.

The so-called "latent heat" (latent heat) is released when water vapor into liquid water, heat, for example, 25 degrees Celsius, 1 grams of water vapor into liquid water with temperature, it will release latent heat of 583 cards. Will boiling water out of the top of the palm of your hand and feel that will be hot heat, that is, small droplets of water vapor into the white at the time of latent heat. 

 This cumulonimbus with low-temperature drying from the north of the jet stream after the confluence even stronger, so the formation of more clouds tablets, raindrops and ice crystals, but also to latent heat release to create more powerful updraft, and its speed per second and sometimes Tatsu dozens of meters, thus the ground caused by storms, heavy rain, under the hail, thunder and lightning, brought disaster. Cumulonimbus will rotate if it can extend the life, may become a giant cumulonimbus. 

 Many warm wet south-east wind, and shun the Rocky Mountains along the south boundary of the northwest wind is the dry line. Drying line showing wavy morphology and the formation of vortex in the forthcoming, the wall by the giant cumulonimbus clouds in the occurrence of a tornado. 

 Following this discovery only after we have seen in movies organizations of "Tornado searcher" and they really can be said to be a pioneer in tornado research. According to results of research on these people, we will have a giant tornado cumulonimbus called "super-balloon" (super cell) in order to breakdown.

Plain threat 

 The power of the strongest tornadoes happen in China and the United States on the open plain, near the core of a tornado, with winds of around 480 kilometers per hour. 

 Destruction of traces of 

 Although the tornado ravaged areas narrow, but the place is devastated by. 

 For example: upper right map of the United States a small town in Kentucky. Transit in the tornado, some shelter house is almost gone. 

 Water column 

 A tornado does not necessarily have taken place on land, the water will cause the formation of a tornado of water. Moved in across the land when the water will lose energy. A tornado formed by the water column is usually limited to the warm season, the main complication in the shallow waters.

Tornado Documentary 

 ** The United States has an annual average of 750 tornadoes, the most commonly issued in the main period between 4-6. 

 ** Fast rotation of the tornado would normally be divided into several smaller tornadoes. 

 ** November 1981, the United Kingdom abnormal 102 small tornado outbreak. 

 We have not been able to understand the structure of a tornado, because the high risk without accessible and tornadoes are generated in the bottom of a giant cumulonimbus, so can not be observed from above. Howard Mann, who made use of Doppler radar reflection intensity of a tornado is very similar to the level of distribution patterns Typhoon, but Typhoon has hundreds of times in a tornado the size, shape much like the typhoon. 

 Reflection intensity tornado center is weak, much like the typhoon clear calm eyes, surrounded by a strong reflected wave of the donut-type ring, which is central to strong winds欥powder of sand and fragments, which is equivalent to around a giant typhoon eye cumulonimbus base. Arm ring outside are giant cumulonimbus by the convergence of the airflow around the sand blowing and fragment formation, equivalent to a typhoon brought heavy rain.

Drag under tornado 

 Heyday period, the upper cumulonimbus with the center of the pressure difference between the increased air flow will be downward drag out, it is "under the gas drag type (emission type)" tornado. Center under the ground after the collision drag airflow around the proliferation of once, and with super airbags airflow convergence encounter this volume at a distance of several hundred meters from the wind center formed donut-type ring updraft area. 

by the tornado that strong wind blowing the sand and fragments will be convergence in the donut-type ring and with an increase, this situation will often form a giant tornado. By radar observations of the donut-ring strong reflected wave, we know this is under a tornado-type flow drag, at the same time know it in seconds, speed 70 meters above the speed of rotation to the left. 

 Tornado not only happen in the United States, China, Southeast Asia, India, Italy and other places have been reports of a tornado disaster. Recently, neighboring Japan also began to pay attention to tornadoes and similar phenomena of abrupt burst under the drag (down bourst), air speed of 4 kilometers more than 4 kilometers below said microburst micro-bourst) and the resulting disaster. 

 The so-called "drag under abrupt explosion" is over heyday period from cumulonimbus drag generated by airflow under strong collision avoidance into a strong wind after the ground around the phenomenon of proliferation, much like a tornado but the rotation range is less than a tornado, convergence and divergence dispersion larger than a tornado. 

 May cause abnormal localized disasters, such as the threat of small water spouts water (water-spout), the Gobi desert, the Sahara desert, the Taklimakan Desert and other places of small dust storms (dust devil), the Atlantic hurricane ( hurricane) as well as the invasion of the Pacific typhoons in the West Bank (tyPhoon) and so on. 

 Increased tornado 

 Super airbag to the heyday period of growth before the tornado in the updraft like a vacuum cleaner sucked into the ground like material, this is known as the "updraft type (sucked into type)." 

 At this point sand, fragments, etc. focus on the bottom of a tornado, the air around the cyclone center by the centrifugal force of the impact of central pressure drop.

Greenhouse gases to climate impact

The impact of greenhouse gases are long-term and global, the impact of suspended particles is short and are regional. Man-made greenhouse gases generated by the greenhouse effect in many areas because of the cooling effect of suspended particles may be underestimated. In such cases, there is a possibility of paradox. Assuming an immediate cessation of human burning of fossil fuels, aerosol content will be immediately dropped from the natural content, and its cooling effect of the role will also stop; and left over from the previous man-made greenhouse gases still continue to play its greenhouse effect, warming the Earth. In such cases, we can not rule out the possibility of global warming rather than the possibility of aggravating. 

 Scientists not only the uncertain role of suspended particles in the radiation volume size, more uncertainty net effect of its climate. Even if greenhouse gases greenhouse effect coincided with the cooling effect of aerosol balance, a net amount of radiation is zero. Whether they would have no impact on climate? The answer is no. The operation of the climate because the world does not depend on the size of the net amount of radiation. Any one region, because the energy imbalance resulting from disturbance may affect the global climate. For example, the Tibetan Plateau in summer the northern hemisphere are a major heat source, its influence throughout the world. Similarly, any one of the suspended particles in the region caused by the cooling effect of atmospheric disturbances, but also to other areas that may affect the climate. 

 Scientists suspect that the past century the global average temperature rise with an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases. In theory, this is certainly possible. But if you look at a strict scientific point of view, we can easily find that many of the confusing. For example, mentioned in this chapter aerosol cooling effect, which in the end how strong? The net effect? Another example, when we compare the 18th century, since the concentrations of greenhouse gases and global average temperature curve, we found that although the general trend of the two similar, there are many inconsistencies in the details. For example, after the industrial revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels on the rapid increase, but why the temperature in the late 19th century until a marked increase in? Little Ice Age of the natural impact of climate change? In another example, since the 1950s, rate of increase of greenhouse gases faster, but why the low temperature during 1950-1970? 

 In addition to climate are countless physical processes by interactions formed. At present, the scientific community on many issues are still not well understood. Based on satellite observation data, the role of clouds of radiation-17Wm-2. That is, if there is no cloud, climate warming may be more. Some changes in cloud cover caused by the volume of radiation have been with considerable warming of greenhouse gases (over the past 100 years for the 2.45 Wm-2). Over the past 10 years through satellite observations, the scientific community on the cloud / radiation increasing the understanding of the relationship, but still limited. Low clouds tend to cool the troposphere, but the high cloud is a warming effect. If carbon dioxide doubling of atmospheric water vapor content may increase, then the distribution of cloud what change? Changes in different types of clouds, the climate may have completely different effects. And the impact of clouds is a lot we do not know much about one of the physical processes.

Amount of radiation

Human economic activities have created greenhouse gases and suspended particles, the former have a warming effect, while the latter have a cooling effect. Clearly, man-made greenhouse effect may be because the role of aerosol cooling effect, and has been underestimated. Greenhouse gases and suspended particulate characteristics quite different: 

 (A) produce the greenhouse effect greenhouse gases, aerosols have a cooling effect. 

 (B) of greenhouse gases have a long lifespan, suspended particles in a very short lifespan. 

 (C) the distribution of greenhouse gases are uniform, global, and the distribution of suspended particles is uneven regional. 

 This is because the characteristics of three different greenhouse gases and suspended particles are also very different from the impact. They are the direct effects of changes in the Earth's radiation balance. Scientists calculated the amount of radiation effect (radiative forcing) to assess their direct impact. The long term, without any abnormal interference (such as, air pollution, volcanic eruptions), the Earth's atmosphere should be in a state of radiation balance, that is, zero net radiation (radiation equivalent to the amount of radiation absorbed radiation doses). Once the imbalance in the Earth's atmospheric temperature is bound to increase (if the net amount of radiation is positive) or lower (if, by a negative net radiation), adjust to another until the temperature of the radiation balance. The role of the so-called radiation volume, refers to the atmospheric properties (such as, carbon dioxide content, cloud cover, etc.) change, the corresponding change in the volume of net radiation. 

 For global (or climate) change, we are most concerned about the troposphere / surface of this system are subject to the volume of radiation. Figure 3-12 are from before the Industrial Revolution to the present, as a result of greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, CFC-11, CFC-12, Figure 3-12b), as well as man-made sulfate aerosol (Figure 3-12a) content changes caused by the volume of radiation. Figure 3-12c is to combine the two into the net after the amount of radiation. Radiation effects of greenhouse gases rather uniform distribution, but mostly in 2.5Wm-2 and between 1Wm-2. Its distribution by temperature, humidity and cloud cover distribution. For example, the value of low-latitude regions more than high latitudes, tropical ocean regions than the western half of the eastern half of the value of large desert areas (such as, sub-) has a relatively large value, and strong tropical convective region (such as, the Western Pacific , South America, Africa) is the value of small. 

 The role of suspended particles in the radiation level should be very uneven distribution, showing a high degree of regional. Maximum occurred in the eastern United States, Europe, East Asia, South America and South Africa, the West Bank, are man-made pollution in the region more serious. Other areas has not been significantly affected. Current estimates indicate that although the cooling effect of suspended particles can not be ignored, still less than the greenhouse effect greenhouse gases, so the net amount of radiation all over the world is still positive. The net amount of radiation the smallest regions, aerosol cooling effect is most obvious region. 

 IPCC scientists estimated from 1850 to 1990 between changes in atmospheric composition caused by the volume of radiation. Figure 3-13 in the global and annual average amount of radiation that they think are the best estimate value. Greenhouse gases for 2.45Wm-2, the error range of 15%. Which carbon dioxide is 1.56 Wm-2, methane 0.47 Wm-2, nitrous oxide 014 Wm-2, CFC-11 0.06 Wm-2, CFC-12 0.14 Wm-2, other gases 0.08 Wm-2. Suspended particles for the direct impact of -0.25 ~ -0.9 Wm-2, the indirect impact of 0 ~ -1.5 Wm-2, the two superimposed effect of -0.3 ~ -3 Wm-2. However, because the scientific community and its impact on the suspended particles is still very limited understanding, the estimated value of a large range of error. IPCC scientists pointed out that the role of suspended particles in the radiation volume estimates, the future may still have a substantial amendment. 

 In recent years, as a result of man-made CFCs damage the ozone, the stratospheric ozone decreased to reduce the absorption of short-wave radiation, stratospheric temperature decline. Colder stratosphere to the troposphere of the long-wave radiation volume also decreased, causing a negative role in the amount of radiation. On the other hand, more short-wave radiation penetrating the stratospheric ozone layer, atmospheric absorption for the troposphere, and its role in capacity coincided with the radiation. Scientists estimate the current negative effects of radiation is larger than the volume of radiation, the net effect of -0.1 ~ -0.2 Wm-2, but the estimated value of the error range considerably. At the same time, because of air pollution, tropospheric ozone has increased year by year with its greenhouse effect is caused by about 0.2 ~ 0.6 Wm-2 is the amount of radiation. During the same period, solar radiation intensity also slightly increased, which is equivalent to 0.3 Wm-2 is the amount of radiation. 

 Scientists do everything we can to explore the atmospheric composition change on the potential impact of climate change. In order to understand the mission first and foremost since the Industrial Revolution the role of the net amount of radiation changes. However, due to the lack of basic information, lack of understanding of a range of factors, scientists can only on the radiation effects of greenhouse gases have more confidence in estimates, changes in atmospheric composition to other estimates, the confidence is still not high.

Suspended particles

More than human economic activities produce greenhouse gases, but also to create a large amount of suspended particles. They have a cooling effect on the atmospheric radiation and the net effect of greenhouse gases the contrary. Suspended particles are floating in the air of small particles (diameter between 0.001 ~ 10μm) a general term, has the natural and man-made. Natural suspended particles have ash, flue dust (soil dust; most from North Africa and the Asian desert areas), sea salt aerosol and so on. Man-made industrial dust suspended particles have (industrial dust; mostly produced by incomplete combustion of impurities), soot, sulfate and nitrate and other suspended particles. 

 Larger sizes of suspended particles by the gravity traction quickly dropped the surface, stay in the atmosphere is very short, little impact on climate. Small particles of suspended particles, although the largest quantity, but quality and the proportion of surface area is too small, the impact on climate is not much. Therefore, the impact of climate biggest diameter of suspended particles around in between 0.1 ~ 1μm. 

 Suspended particles absorb radiation, and scattering of solar radiation. Suspended particles in the presence of a high temperature may rise, other regions are cooling. For example, near the surface of soot absorbed short-wave radiation, so that tropospheric warming, but the surface absorption of solar radiation has decreased, the temperature drop. In another example, the stratospheric volcanic ash in the absorption of atmospheric long-wave radiation, so that stratospheric temperature rise, but its strong scattering effect, increase the albedo, reducing the troposphere into the amount of solar radiation, anti-so near the surface temperature dropped. Generally speaking, the majority of suspended particles (apart from soot) imposed on the radiation effects of the troposphere for the cooling effect. 

 Another role of suspended particles is to serve as cloud condensation nuclei . Water vapor are less than the look, we can see the clouds are water droplets or ice crystals to form. Small water droplets to form cloud condensation nuclei to have it the size of about 0.1 ~ 0.2μm, and we consider the size of suspended particles. Once generated, the small droplets can be formed within minutes of raindrops 2000μm. By volume, the growth of a 1012-fold. Even if there are no impurities, water vapor will reach saturation point, if condensation. However, impurities (such as salt, suspended particles, etc.) exist, allows water vapor did not reach saturation condensation began (just as easy to damp salt caking). For example, a small droplet radius of 0.4μm, if melting has 10-15 grams of salt, the water droplet surface is equivalent to the volume of saturated water vapor relative humidity of 99.6%. That is to say, this one small water droplets can not saturated in water vapor environment, the lessons of the water vapor around constantly growing larger. Once the water vapor in the air condenses into small droplets together to form visible clouds. 

 With many suspended particles on the characteristics of cloud condensation nuclei, they can increase Xiaoyun droplet (cloud droplet) the quantity, but a further increase in cloud albedo. Consider the equivalent amount of water vapor, if the cloud droplet number, each assigned to a cloud droplet of water vapor less cloud droplet size also small; the other hand, if a small number of cloud droplets, the cloud droplet size larger . Generally speaking, the smaller cloud droplets, cloud albedo larger. In addition, the small size of the cloud droplet formation of precipitation is not easy, because they are too light, but probably would not fall, the decline may also be the way to quickly evaporated. 

 Increase in atmospheric aerosol content, which may result in the following effects: clouds within the cloud droplet increase in the number, size small is not easy to form precipitation, cloud lifetime is therefore variable length. The Earth's average albedo of 0.3, in which contributions to clouds of 0.2. If the atmospheric cloud cover and cloud albedo increase, and longer life, the Earth's albedo may be larger. In other words, the atmosphere and surface absorbs less solar radiation. From the above discussion, we know that excessive suspended particles serve as condensation may wish to check the indirect effects of the Earth's atmosphere are cooling radiation may make the troposphere and surface temperatures lower. However, can not be denied is that the scientific community of suspended particulate understanding the indirect effects are still quite limited. 

 Different greenhouse gases in the atmosphere of a long lifespan, within the troposphere aerosol lifetime is only around a week. Once they enter the troposphere, and some by the influence of gravity falling ground, and some dissolved in rainwater, and the formation of acid rain. Greenhouse gases and long lifespan, so that it can send with the atmospheric circulation evenly spread around the world. Suspended particles due to the short lifespan, can be transmitted is not long distance, mostly scattered in the vicinity of regional pollution sources. Therefore, the distribution of it are regional rather than global. Characteristics of this one can clearly suspended particles from man-made sulfate content distribution maps  to see: the areas with the highest concentration in the northern hemisphere, such as the eastern United States, Europe and China, the southern hemisphere is much smaller than the Northern Hemisphere content content.

The impact of greenhouse gases

Compared with carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, CFCs higher greenhouse effect. For example, a molecule of methane is a greenhouse effect 21 times that of carbon dioxide molecules, nitrous oxide is 206 times that of CFCs, compared with thousands of times to ten thousand times. However, because of carbon dioxide than other gases, so the greenhouse effect of carbon dioxide is still the biggest. Figure 3-10 for the 1980 to 1990 between the various man-made greenhouse gases in the atmosphere caused by the increase in the proportion of radiation. The effects of carbon dioxide accounted for 55%, methane 15%, 6% nitrous oxide, CFCs (CFC; destruction of stratospheric ozone culprits; see chapter V) is a total of 24%. 

 Another characteristic of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere of their stay (ie, lifetime) is longer. Such as listed in Table 3.2, carbon dioxide, the life period of the life period of 50 ~ 200 years, methane 12 ~ 17 years to 120 years of nitrous oxide, CFC-12 for 102 years. Once these gases into the atmosphere, it is almost impossible recovery, only by the natural process so that they gradually disappear. In the atmosphere due to their long lifespan, the impact of greenhouse gases are long-lasting and global. From any one corner of the Earth to the atmospheric emissions of carbon dioxide molecules, in its 100 years of life-long period, have the opportunity to travel around the world, affecting the climate around. Even if mankind to cease immediately all man-made greenhouse gas emissions from the industrial revolution, the cumulative greenhouse gas will continue to exert their greenhouse effect, the impact of the Earth's climate.

Changing concentrations of greenhouse gases

Although carbon dioxide is not the main component of the Earth's atmosphere, but its content remains constant change, and with climate change may have a great relationship. Scientists from the fossil carbon isotope content, suggesting the ancient earth's atmospheric carbon dioxide content. Figure 3-6 are the last 500 million years of carbon dioxide changes, the figure R = 1 is equivalent to the current atmospheric carbon dioxide content. In the early Cambrian period (more than 500 million years ago), carbon dioxide levels today are content 15-20 times, and then continued to decline until 3 million years ago, reached with the current content of a considerable extent. 100000000 ~ 2 millions of years ago, compared with the current content of 3 ~ 5 times Coincidentally, during this period (Jurassic) climate warming, the dinosaurs are the most advantage of the Earth's biological. 

 Figure 3-6 in the value of pushing the valuation, the former Soviet Union scientists in the Antarctic Vostok ice core is made of the ancient atmosphere containing actual samples, recorded over the past years changes in greenhouse gases. Figure 3-7 from the ice core are measured between the past 22 million years, carbon dioxide, methane content, as well as the estimated value of the temperature changes. We found that long-term changes in the three fairly consistent over the short-term change has some discrepancies. For example, 13-14 million years ago, the temperature higher than the modern climate 1-2 ℃, carbon dioxide and methane content is the highest. High levels of greenhouse gases, the greenhouse effect, and the temperature of natural increase. However, research has also pointed out that in high temperature environment, the soil biomass (biomass) faster rate of corruption, there will be more carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from the surface; Moreover, if the marsh area increased, the surface release The methane emissions will also increase. Clearly, from Figure 3-7 can not determine the temperature and greenhouse gas content of the causal link between, but changes in the consistency of the two is no doubt. 

 Historical data from the above, we know that carbon dioxide content in the range of natural variation rather large (may be related to changes in the earth's crust, volcanic eruptions on the frequency). Since the European industrial revolution, mankind's industrial activities substantial use of fossil fuels (fossil fuel, such as coal, oil), to create a large amount of carbon dioxide, and emissions to the atmosphere. Before the industrial revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has been maintained at about 280ppmv (that is, one million unit volume of gas contained in unit volume of carbon dioxide 280, Figure 3-8). After the Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide levels increase rapidly after the 1950s, increasing faster rate until 1995 358ppmv. 

 Posterior lobe from the 18th century to 1994, carbon dioxide levels increased by 30%. These increases are mainly from the burning of fossil fuels, cement production and land use. Coal and oil in the combustion process of carbon is oxidized into carbon dioxide; limestone were used to produce cement process also release carbon dioxide; land development and utilization of not only reduced the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by plants, but also to accelerate the perishable and produces carbon dioxide. We are now used in most of the Carboniferous coal (more than 300 million years ago) for some reason the trees were buried in the strata, and gradually formed the fossils. More than 300 million years ago plants absorb solar radiation energy left behind by modern human beings in one, two hundred years between the will of the exhausted. 

 Except carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and other greenhouse gases because the increase of population, economic activity becoming more active, and the rapid increase in Figure 3-9). For example, from before the Industrial Revolution to 1994, the methane content from 700ppbv (part per billion by volume, a billionth) to 1721ppbv; nitrous oxide from 275ppbv to 311ppbv. CFC for the man-made chemicals in the 1950s before the appearance of large numbers, and then increasing rapidly. Recently, as a result of Montreal Protocol banned CFCs, and their contents are no longer in the 1990s to increase.

Greenhouse gases and the greenhouse effect

Evenly blackbody radiation absorption and radiation in each band. General gas is not in bold, will selectively absorb certain bands of radiation. Many of the Earth atmospheric gases absorb hardly visible, but specialized to absorb long-wave radiation. Figure 3-3 are a variety of gases in the absorption rate band. For example, water vapor (H2O) in less than 0.8μ m band absorption rate is almost zero, but in the longer-wave part of (for example, 5μ m) the absorption rate of almost 1, which is completely absorbed. Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the wavelength greater than 15μ m above the radiation has excellent absorption rate. Oxygen (O2), ozone (O3), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), also have similar characteristics. In addition to absorbing long-wave radiation, oxygen and ozone more absorbing a large portion of the ultraviolet light, so that life on Earth immune to UV radiation poisoning . 

 These are good at absorbing long-wave radiation but do not like to absorb short-wave radiation of the gas, allowing about 50% of solar radiation through the atmosphere, surface absorption, but almost all of the surface to intercept and atmospheric radiation of energy, reduce energy loss, and then the emitted, making the surface and tropospheric temperature. If the top of the atmosphere solar radiation intensity (342 Wm-2) as 100 units, 89 units of surface absorbed from the atmosphere to the surface radiation of the long-wave radiation, is much larger than its short-wave radiation absorbed by the volume (about 50 units). At night, atmospheric long-wave radiation to radiation, so that the surface is not due to lack of solar radiation has become too cold. The impact of these gases similar agricultural greenhouse warming effect, so called greenhouse gases, their impact is called the greenhouse effect. The existence of atmospheric warming is not only the surface, but also lowered the temperature difference between day and night. 

 If we consider the radiative properties of the atmosphere, but does not consider the characteristics of the atmosphere can flow, the vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature should be the dotted line in Figure 3-4, the actual temperature distribution, compared with solid line. Comparing the two, we found that only consider the radiation balance, surface temperature much higher than the actual temperature, and the tropopause (about 10 kilometers) is too low, and therefore the vertical temperature lapse rate is far greater than the actual vertical atmospheric lapse rate. This one atmospheric state is bound to a very unstable, prone to intense convection, so that hot air rising, cold air drop, the net effect for the heat to upload. Near surface air temperature drop, high temperature increased, so that the temperature of the vertical temperature trends Figure 3-4 in the solid line. This boil water in the stove on very similar process: teapot in the rolling water, will be provided by the fire's spread the heat evenly, until all the water to reach boiling point. 

 The greenhouse effect not only occurred in the Earth, Venus and Mars, the main ingredient for the carbon dioxide atmosphere. Atmospheric greenhouse effect of Venus up to 523 ℃, the Martian atmosphere is too thin, the greenhouse effect is only 10 ℃, while the Earth's atmosphere between the two for 33 ℃ (Table 3.1). Strictly speaking, the Earth's atmospheric greenhouse effect should be 82 ℃, because if we do not consider the vertical movement of atmospheric, land surface temperature from -15 ℃ up to 67 ℃ (Figure 3-4 the dotted line). We measured the surface temperature (15 ℃) are actually adjusted by the exercise of atmospheric temperature. 

 The greenhouse effect since ancient times. Was born in the earth 46 million years ago, when the intensity of the sun only about the current 70%. Solar intensity of 1% of the change, which is equivalent to the surface temperature of 1 ~ 2 ℃ changes. Therefore, if the Earth's climate is only affected by the impact of solar radiation in the radiation balance, the ancient Earth's atmosphere should be dozens of degrees lower than at present. At that time, the earth will not be a blue, full of water planet, but a white hockey. However, none of a variety of paleoclimate data show the Earth once in such a cold climate. This is the so-called contradictions of the sun weak (weak sun paradox). Scientists found that when the newly formed earth, volcanic activity, many emitting carbon dioxide, has become the main component of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide greenhouse effect, so a lot of atmospheric temperature. Therefore, although solar radiation is weak, but the Earth's climate is not too cold. This one with Venus and Mars similar. 

 At present, the main component of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) and a far cry from the early atmospheric composition. This is because the original biological emergence of algae, the photosynthesis, carbon dioxide release of oxygen, gradually transforming the composition of the atmosphere. Today, most of the carbon stored in the earth's crust and oceans, the atmosphere was full of oxygen. Venus and Mars, because no biological effects of early atmospheric composition is therefore retained. Scientists also found a number of times, paleoclimate Megathermal emergence are related to carbon dioxide (from volcanic eruptions) an increase. From the above discussion, we know that the greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon, but since the opening day of pangu have. As long as there is the atmosphere, the greenhouse effect may have. 

 Changes in carbon dioxide levels can affect the climate, but to create the current atmospheric temperature distribution is a major factor in water vapor. Atmospheric water vapor amount of small, only 0.5 percent less than the total mass of the atmosphere, but water is apart from the sun, the impact of biotechnology and climate biggest material. Scientists simulate the vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature and found that as long as the mode Add the actual water vapor content of the observed, simulated atmospheric vertical temperature distribution with the actual situation on the order of magnitude . If we add carbon dioxide, the temperature further enhance 10K, but does not change the temperature distribution; stratosphere (10 km) temperature with a high increase in the required addition of ozone can add analog out. This simulation, because not taken into consideration the effects of clouds, tropospheric temperature higher than a lot of observations. The study pointed out that the biggest impact of greenhouse gases are water vapor, which contributed 80% of the greenhouse effect, not only determines the vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature, but also created a warm Earth's climate. Relatively speaking, the carbon dioxide is the climate becomes warmer.

Radiation characteristics

Electromagnetic radiation is transmitted through a kind of energy. As gravity or a magnet in a vacuum can pendulum swing, the same electromagnetic wave energy having to go through any medium can be in a vacuum delivery. X-ray, ultraviolet, visible light, microwaves, radio waves are a kind of electromagnetic wave. The biggest impact of climate mostly between the ultraviolet to the infrared band, is the strongest band of solar radiation . 

 Any object are emitted radiation will be. Radiation properties of a material if compliance with the basic law of radiation (such as Pu Planck's law (Planck's law), external causes of displacement law (Wien's displacement law), law Quejido (Kirchoff 's law) and so on, referred to as blackbody (blackbody ), are ideal for one's material circumstances. blackbody absorbed all the incident radiation, is neither reflective nor penetrating radiation. blackbody radiation, one of the characteristics are the energy and temperature is proportional to the fourth (this is the law of Pu-Poulenc ). spread to the Earth's solar radiation from sunlight many balls (which are part of the naked eye to see), its temperature is about 5800K; the Earth's radiation balance temperature of 255K. If the sun and the Earth as a blackbody, solar radiation intensity radiation intensity of the Earth about 300,000 times. 

 A blackbody radiation characteristics of the material, if the higher temperature, emitted energy concentrated in the shorter wavelength band; In contrast, low temperature, energy concentrated in the longer wavelength band. This is the external causes of displacement law, which is a maximum energy of electromagnetic waves is inversely proportional to wavelength and temperature. Such as the Sun as a blackbody, the biggest part of the radiation concentrated in the visible light (wavelength of 0.4 ~ 0.7μm). Temperature of the Earth's radiation balance is well below the temperature of the sun, so the energy concentrated in the longer-wavelength infrared band (wavelength around the near 10μm). 

 From Figure 3-2, we can clearly see the sun and earth radiation energy concentrated band, a great difference between each other, overlapping part of small and very small in the energy band. We, therefore, can easily distinguish between the Sun and the Earth's radiation. Solar radiation due to a shorter wavelength, commonly known as short-wave radiation; earth radiation, relatively speaking, a longer wavelength, known as long-wave radiation.

Seismic wave phase

Related to the internal structure of most of the Earth is to examine the body wave travel time (travel time) on that. Seismic wave propagation path can be used wave line (ray) to express. Different wave line has a different name, called the wave-phase (phase). 

P wave and S-wave speed and medium-density and flexible nature, the Earth's interior P-wave and S wave velocity usually increases with depth, but in some depth as a result of material or phase changes in particular have changed , such as the outer core part of that is because it is the relationship between the liquid and can not transmit S waves and the sharp drop in P-wave velocity. 

Affected by the P wave S-phase studies, and the travel time curve (travel time curve) by the performance characteristics of the Earth found that the presence of non-continuous surface wave velocity, that is, the passage of seismic waves, the speed of drastic change. The most famous one for discontinuous surface (Moho discontinuity) for the crust and upper mantle boundary; Second, discontinuous surface Gothenburg (Guttenburg discontinuity) for the mantle and the core line. 

Because the speed of the existence of discontinuous surface, the local shock waves through occurs when the phenomenon of reflection and refraction, and therefore can also be seen on seismic records spread P-wave S-wave reflection and refraction, such as wave-wave phase. Through different parts of the wave of the Earth have different names. Starting from the source of seismic waves through the Earth's interior and then back to the Earth's surface, then the letter in the P wave or S wave lines still express P or S; outer nuclear ball line in P to K said that without the existence of S-wave; in kernel P wave and S ball line to I and J, respectively, express; ─ letter in the core of the reflex points on the border in order to express c; ─ in the core outer core boundary on the reflection point to i express. 

We can wave line is divided into five categories; 1) wave lines in letter only to P, S, PP, SS, PS, PPP, ..., such as express. 2) wave-line through the mantle in the earth's core mantle boundary reflection ─ after the return to the surface through the mantle to PcP, PcS, ScS ... such as express. 3) wave-line through the mantle and outer core to return to the surface, to PKP, PKS, SKS ... and so on express. 4) wave-line through the mantle, outer core, then core outer core boundary ─ reflex, and then through the outer core, mantle and return to the surface, to PkiKP, PKiKS, SkiKS ... such as express. 5) wave-line through the mantle, outer core and kernel to PKIKP, PKIKS, PKJKP, SKJKS ... such as express. 


When the source is not surface when waves can customize the source down the spread of the spread can also be upward. Upward spread of seismic reflection in the table, and then down the spread of this from this source to the surface wave line, to p, s express, so there may be wave of pP, sS, pPKP ... and so on. 


Because the Earth's internal structure is very complex, all floors of the wave propagation speed is different and thus can cause refraction, affect the transmission of shock waves. To P-wave as an example, P-wave in the internal dissemination of the Earth, the distance from the earthquake epicenter and to 1 degrees, 2 degrees ... 103 degrees can still be clearly recorded in the direct P wave, but from 103 onwards, P-wave because after refraction arising from the earth's core, because the relationship between the angle of incidence, refraction of the P wave will appear in addition to 143 degrees. 
So epicenter distance of 103 degrees to 143 degrees, while still observing the P-wave phase, but in this area of the P wave for the diffraction wave, energy is very weak compared with other places, in this interval that is with the formation of the shadow (shadow zone)