Frequent Q nad A of Glaciers

1. Glacier would block large attachments, these large block of glacier ice will not have resistance so that you slow down? 

A: Because the glaciers flows by gravity itself, the impact of very large, while the re-entrainment of the rock glacier in the main debris can increase the gravity, rather than an increase in gravity so that the faster flow of glaciers. 

2. How to use radioactive dating to set the history of glaciers? 

A: radioactive dating mainly driven by glacial moraine material for dating. Moraine material from the set of radioactive material, compared to determine the history of glacial activity. 

3. In the glacier flows at the bottom of why the glaciers because of friction and melting into the water? 

A: Because the bottom of the friction will heat, so glaciers will melt into water. 

4. How to determine the direction of glacier flow? 


A: You can use sheep back stone to determine the direction of glacier flow. However, since the flow of glaciers and water flow similar circumstances, so the direction of flow may be changed at any time, so to determine the direction of glacier flow requires a lot of information, and then check in order to determine the average. 

5. Glacier is a large-scale activities, but the larger glaciers on the human effects are? 

A: The glaciers on the human impact of the greenhouse effect. If the reduction of carbon dioxide will make glaciers increase, the result will increase the land area. But if carbon dioxide increases, the glaciers will melt, sea level rise.

Historical influence of the doctrine of glaciers

1. Glacier theory 
"According to research geologist in the past geological age, the great ice sheet had to cover up most of the Earth, including the current does not exist, including glaciers, and now see glaciers, its extension of the scope of the past must be than it is now larger and more. " This is the theory of glaciers. As early as 1839 by the Swiss scholar gais Asia (Louis Agassiz) founded. 

2. Glacier history 
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, many geologists in search of glaciers around the world left behind by glacial sediments and topography, according to radioactive dating, fossils and varying degrees of weathering of soil and found in the Pleistocene period, many regions of the Northern Hemisphere glaciers are covered by the mainland, covering an area of the world's land area of almost 29%, then, because of melting glaciers, retreat of glaciers in the area now accounts for only 10% of land area 

Pleistocene period, there have been several well-being of the global climate change, the ensuing glaciation not happen again. Cold weather, the snowfall increased, large-scale development of the glacier, known as the Ice Age; When the climate warming, the ice age receded mass, called interglacial. The most recent Ice Age occurred 75000 years about two years ago, the earliest one in a million years to the Ice Age about two million years ago. Now the world is considered the fourth is in a post-glacial period in the interglacial stage. This shows that the Quaternary Pleistocene is the world's most important period of a glacier in the history of geology known as the Great Ice Age (Great Ice Age). 

Quaternary ago in the world have also taken place in several large-scale glacier period, mainly by the formation of different geological age of the moraine of the emergence of complex been proven. 

Pleistocene ice age has been in about ten thousand years before the end of the Earth's land surface but more than half are still working with glacial climate conditions, either directly or indirectly related to a variety of terrain, only to then understand the geomorphological process, will it be possible to recognize topography and climate at the time the relationship between. 
3. Glacier impact 
Glaciers on the impact of sea level around the world is extremely large increase in evaporation of sea water, some of which will be the form of snow fell, snow melted into water in the last into the sea. However, in the history of the cold or glacial period, the balance will be destroyed, because of ice and snow remain in the ground does not move, the sea level will drop, a phenomenon known as "sea-surface changes." In the Great Ice Age comes, a large number of evaporation of seawater has been concentrated in the land caused by glaciers, the sea surface that is generally declined; in the interglacial stage, the gradual melting of glaciers in the water inflow into the ocean, sea water has gradually picked up. The world is currently in an interglacial, sea water rose by about one per year ~ 2 mm. Today, if Antarctica melting ice, rising sea levels will be 60 meters.

Variety roles of Glaciers

1. Erosion (glacial erosion) 


Glacier has a strong erosion of power, most of the role of mechanical erosion, the erosion can be divided into the following categories: 

(1) Stubbs erosion (plucking): 

When the ice-bed at the bottom or the back cirque bedrock along the joints and loosening of repeated freezing and thawing, if these loose rocks and ice to freeze together, glacier movement when they pulled away rock, which is called out corrosion role. After pulling the post-glacial erosion of its steep curve of the valley is rugged to the formation of a trapezoidal profile of the slope curve. 

(2) the role of abrasion (abrasion): 

When the glacier movement, frozen in glaciers or ice at the bottom of rock debris, due to pressure from above glaciers of Glacier bed cut grinding and etching, known as the abrasive role. Abrasion role in the formation of bedrock with the polished surface, while or glaciation groove is a good evidence, and its direction can be used to indicate the direction of moving glaciers. 


(3) the role of ice wedges (frost action): 

Cracks in the rock contained in ice melt water, the role of repeated freezing and thawing, when the volume up when the reduction, caused by broken rock to become fragments, or from both sides of the slope to the glacier falling forward. 

(4) Others: 

When the ice-melting water into the river, its regular folder there are large volume of ice, will have a strong impact force to undermine cross-strait rock downstream. 



Glacier Erosivity strength is subject to the following factors: 

(1) ice thickness and weight. From thick and strong emphasis on erosion. 

(2) the speed of moving ice. The speed of the larger erosion of power. 

(3) to bring the number of stones. Carry more weight the more the number of persons, Erosivity stronger. 

(4) of rough ground or smooth rock. Rough ground are more vulnerable to the erosion of glaciers. 

(5) at the end of the nature of rock, soft rock at the end of those who are more vulnerable to erosion. 

(6) of the tilt rock direction consistent with the direction of movement of glaciers, and prone to erosion. 



Due to erosion caused by erosion landform are: 


(1) cirque : 

For the valley glacier, one of the important erosion landform, formed in the vicinity of the snow line, in flat or low-lying mountain snow Department up to, because of the repeated freezing and thawing snow, causing the collapse of the rock, in the gravity and the combined effect of snowmelt water, will rock eroded into-shaped or horseshoe-shaped depression, the typical cirque was formed. Cirque three steep rock face is to have a downhill openings, if the glaciers receded, the low-lying land with water into a lake, is Lake cirque. 


(2) edged ridge , Kok Fung , ice dumb : 

If cirque because digging erosion and the erosion of the role of Frost Crack continuous expansion of cirque wall retreat adjacent cirque ridge between formed gradually shaped blade, known as the ridge edge. The cirque of the convergence of several peaks, the shape is very sharp, then known as the peak angle. In between the lower edge of Saddle Ridge, the ice was dumb. 

(3)spur , U-type Valley , stone depressions :

When the valley glacier from the highlands to the low mobility, spur was into a triangle, known as the spur. Glacier Valley because of the shape such as the U-shaped cross section, so called U-Valley. U-Valley Valley on both sides of a clear shoulder, shoulder valley below than straight, wide and flat at the bottom, if the bottom of the valley glaciers, glaciers dug by a solar eclipse, caused by the puddles down, then Stone called the low-lying land. 


(4) Fjord : 

At high latitudes, glaciers often into the ocean, in the shore erosion into some deep U-Valley, when the ice retreat, the water can enter very far along the valley, the original Valley then into ice fjord. 

(5) hanging valley : 

Hanging valley formed from the glaciers Erosivity differences, the main glaciers due to thick ice, the next eclipse strong, so deep U-Valley; and support of glaciers because of thin ice, the next eclipse weak, so U-Valley more shallow. Because in the glaciers and the main branch of the intersection of the glaciers often glaciers at the end of the disparity between high and low, when the teams entered the main glaciers of the ice when glaciers will fly into a waterfall-like fall, called hanging valley. 

(6) sheep back stone : 

For ice an erosion of the bed topography, is composed of bedrock hills, often groups of distribution, such as creeping Yuanwang sheep, the sheep known as the stone back. Their plane for Elliptic, the long axis of the flow direction consistent with the ice, glaciers upstream direction to a slope as a result of glacial erosion of the role of the lower slope, gentler slope, and there are many; while in the other side, by glaciers dug erosion, slope rough, steep slope more. Sheep back stone formation is the result of hard and soft rock is the order of white, when the erosion, the role of weathering, the soft rock will be eroded more deeply; while the hard rock resistance to erosion, weathering ability, Therefore, erosion, weathering, the hard rock than soft rock high, the formation of the elliptical uplift terrain, side by abrasion, corrosion side by digging. 


(7) glacier polished surface, glaciers : 

Sheep back in the stone or U-Valley and in the Great boulder on the role of glaciers often formed polished surface, when the glaciers moving objects is sand and silt, the rocks in the more dense, the polished surface is more for well-developed; if glaciers moving objects for gravel, then etched into the wall in the Valley Streak or groove called glaciers, one end of rough, the other side of thin, thick at one end point to the upper reaches. 



2. Handling the role of (glacial transportation)

Because of the role of glacial erosion resulting from a large number of loose debris and a debris avalanche from the slopes, it will enter the glacier system, together with the movement of glaciers, which was carrying debris known as moraine material, according to their different locations within the glacier , removal can be divided into different types:

(1) Table moraine: the exposed surface of the glacier moraine material. 

(2) moraine : caught in the glacial moraine material inside 

(3) at the end moraine : accumulation in the bottom of the glacier moraine material. 

(4) lateral moraine : on both sides of the glacier moraine accumulation of objects. 

(5) in the moraine : the convergence of two glaciers, its adjacent lateral moraine that is merged into one, joined at the middle known as the glaciers in the moraine. 

(6) the end moraine (end moraine) : With the advance of glaciers, and in glaciers around the end of the moraine material, known as terminal moraine. 

(7) back moraine : As the retreat of glaciers in the process, will brief stay local, and every stay will result in a retreat moraine. 

(8) boulders : handling the role of glaciers, not only can moraine were moved to faraway places, but also can be a huge part of the rock moved to the high, which was handling the huge rock that is known as boulders, and its lithology and near the bedrock completely different. 

Moving glaciers strong, but relatively, glaciers panning bad. 



3. Stacking (glacial deposition) 

Sand and gravel carried by glaciers often thrown out along the way it does in the glacier, the different forms of material handling, stacking it down the formation of the corresponding structures of various moraine. The so-called moraine material is directly caused by the glaciers of the ice layer is not sediments. Sediments and ice, that is directly deposited by the glaciers of the material, or as a result of the role of ice water sediments, and because of glaciation and deposition in rivers and lakes ocean substances. 

Ice sediments can be divided into no sediment layer of ice and into a layer of ice between the two sediments: 

(1) not a layer of ice sediments: 
Such ice sediments from the time of the retreat of glaciers caused by gravel left behind, as the ice melted and left behind on the ground deposits of various sizes, with smaller stones at edges and corners, the surface to be polished or with a brush marks, not now after the accumulation of bedding, bedding such clutter-free ice sediments, often called ice boulders from the moraine soil were formed moraine terrain are: 

a.) moraine hills : 

Melting Ice, the original table with moraine moraine moraine in all sink to the bottom of glaciers, and the end moraine moraine as the base of these objects by the glacier moraine bottom topography, piled into a slope-shaped hills, known as ice moraine hills. Continental glacier area larger moraine hills, and valleys formed by glacial moraine hills, the scale should be smaller. 

b.) lateral moraine embankment : 

By lateral moraine and table in the retreat of glaciers Department moraine deposited by co-located on both sides of the valley glaciers, shaped into a breakwater to the upper reaches of the glacier could have been extended to near the snow line, and to the downstream and terminal moraine often linked embankment. 


c.) the end moraine embankment : 

End moraine embankment is reflected by the retreat of glaciers during the suspension period, if the glaciers melt in the supply and balance, then the end of the glacier might like to stop at a certain location, this time by the glacier moving to the material will be available on the flared end of the accumulation of ice into the embankment, known as the end moraine embankment. Continental glaciers smaller terminal moraine embankment height, length up to several hundred kilometers, the smaller arc curvature; the other hand, the end of the valley glacier moraine embankment height of up to several hundred meters, the length of the small curvature of the larger arc. 

d.) Drum Hill : 

Drum Hill is composed of ice sediments of a hill, about into an oval, long axis in line with the direction of flow, Ying is a steep ice, the ice back is a gentle slope, and its profile for the asymmetric convex. Drum Hill is generally believed that as a result of weakening the movement of glaciers, hampered by the end moraine deposited by. Its glaciers are mainly distributed in the mainland terminal moraine embankment within a few kilometers to several tens of kilometers, often occur in groups, resulting in drum; valley glaciers Hill small number of drums. 
(2) into a layer of ice sediments: 
This is the glaciers and ice-melting water from the common deposition results, the material carried by glaciers are melting the ice water after scouring and panning will be in accordance with the particle size, the accumulation of stratification, the formation of ice accretion, and in the glaciers from the brink ice deposits composed of a variety of landforms, known as ice accumulation landforms. There are several types:

a.) ice deposition , ice fan , outside the red plains : 
At the end of the ice glaciers melt water carried by a large number of gravel, piled up in front of the glaciers in the valley or plain, on the formation of ice water deposition; if the ends of glaciers in the mainland, these sediments can be several kilometers long, in the end moraine piled into the outer breakwater fan, fan-called ice water; a number of ice water fan connected to the formation of the broad masses of ice water on the alluvial plain, also known as the plains outside the red. In these terrain, slope sediments were inclined to downstream to the lower reaches of particle size smaller. 


b.) ice water lake , quarter-designate mud : 
Lake ice is formed by ice melt water, because the retreat of glaciers, the moraine in front of the glaciers were to block access, can always be water lake. Lake ice has obvious seasonal variation, summer, more ice melt water, a large number of substances into the lakes, a number of coarse particles on the rapid deposition, but also fine particles suspended in the water, color, light; and the winter ice melt water reduction, a number of long-term suspension of fine particles of clay deposition began, the deeper the color. As a result, in the lakes caused by a rough on a small two-story is easy to identify sediment, called the quarter-designate mud. 

c.) ice gravel port : 
Port for ice gravel bedding and sorting through the fine sand formed, round or irregular shape of the hill. Ice gravel port usually has a layer of the upper layer moraine, ice boulders port is due to the small lake ice, river or stagnant glacier sediment point gap in the glacier bed in the end after the fall from the accumulation, with the drum Venturi difference in the shape of Yu Bing gravel port is not rules, and is layered into. In the mainland are glaciers and valley glacier ice boulders port development. 

d.) port ice gravel terraces : 
On both sides of the glacier, as the rock wall and lateral moraine endothermic more glaciers and ice on both sides than the middle to low, so ice-melt water on the pool in this, the formation of ice side of the river, and bring ice water substances, wait until the ice to melt, these substances accumulate in Glacier Valley on both sides of the formation of ice gravel terraces port, it developed in the valley glacier. 

e.) pot hole : 
Plain ice water often a circular depression, known as the pot hole. Its formation is due to depletion of glaciers, some residual ice was isolated and buried in ice water sediments, when melting ice caused by collapse, caused by pot hole. 

f.) snake-like mound : 
Snake Hill is a long and narrow twists and turns of the terrain, was snake-like bending,steep,narrower, and its extended broadly in line with the direction of the flow of glaciers consistent glaciers are mainly distributed in the mainland areas. 

Snake-like dome of the main causes are: 
1. Glacier, the ice along the glacier melt water infiltration fissure under the glacier, in the glacier at the bottom of the flow of the tunnel under the formation of ice when the ice completely melts, the tunnel in the gravel on the deposition and the formation of snake-like mound. 
2. In the summer, an increase in ice melt water, ice sediments at the end of the formation of glacier ice water delta, wait until next summer, once again retreating glaciers, and then ice water to form a delta, and so constantly repeated, not even a cold water delta together, they form a serpentine-shaped mound moniliforme had. 
Conclusion 

Valley glacier landscape type is the most complex and diverse, can exceed more than 20 kinds. There are obvious vertical distribution. The above the snow line in the angle peaks and cirque ridge edge for heavy erosion landform; snow line until the embankment until the end moraine is U-shaped valley, lateral moraine embankment and moraine hills mainly erosion, geomorphology moraine , glacier terminal moraine embankment is finally represented moraine topography, the end moraine margin for fans and ice water outside the red plains of ice accumulation of landforms. 

Continental glacier landscape type is relatively simple, only a dozen for the horizontal distribution. Moraine embankment to the end for the sector, in order to mainly moraine topography, development moraine hills and ice retreat end moraine embankment, outside the terminal moraine embankment to ice accumulation mainly geomorphic, development outside the red plains, deltas and ice water pot hole. 

And above a glacier landforms ideal model. In fact glacier activities will be affected by climate, such as the valley glacier as an example, the oceanic climate glacier activity, and erosion of the more developed landforms; continental climate glacier activity weak, eroded terrain on the less developed.

The movement of glaciers

When ice accumulation of more and more thick, due to ice body itself formed by the weight of the pressure, coupled with the effects of gravity, you can make ice at the bottom of the flow occurs along the downward slope. Glacier movement in the river flow faster than the much smaller, one-year forward only dozens of meters to several hundred meters. The movement of glaciers in general very slow. 

And the impact of glacier movement factors include the following: 


(1) the ground slope: the greater the slope of the moving sooner. 

(2) glacier thickness and temperature. The thicker the ice is greater pressure, the greater the kinetic energy, the faster movement. Higher temperature when the activities of ice stronger, faster mobile. 

(3) the ground smoothness. More smooth surface resistance is smaller glaciers mobile, mobile sooner, on the contrary, if the rough surface, the greater the resistance, then moving slowly. 

(4) ice-melting content. If the temperature increases, part of the ice melted into water, the ice-melting content increased, increased mobility, glaciers move faster 

(5) glaciers carry the effect of rock debris. Rock debris carried by glaciers more, then the greater the pressure, the stronger the kinetic energy, mobile sooner. 

Continental glacier screwdown crust due to the weight of the General Assembly, the central part of the base rock will become irregular disk, not into a massive, but like a lot of plane-like movement. Valley glacier sliding part of the fastest in the glaciers at the top, at the bottom of the rock base due to friction while moving very slowly. The speed of glacier movement in various parts of the same glaciers are different in different parts of glaciers will have different forms of movement, the movement of glaciers by internal flow and sliding at the bottom of the composition of two parts. In each cross-section of the glacier, its surface is greater than at the central rate of both sides because both sides of the rock by glaciers on both sides of the resistance; the same ice surface is also moving faster than its in-house. 


Generally speaking, the middle of the flow of a faster rate than on both sides, at the top than the bottom faster. The movement of glaciers is mainly composed of two parts, one part of the campaign is the internal movement of glaciers, increasing from bottom to top; another part of the movement is at the bottom of the sliding glacier, known as "the end of Waterloo" , is at the bottom of glacial melt water because of the smooth rocks at the end of the slide. In the movement of glaciers, the slip at the end of the campaign is greater than its own internal glacier movement. Therefore, the movement of glaciers is mainly relying on "the end of Waterloo." For each glacier is concerned, have a stacking area and ablation area, separated from the snow line, in the online snow and ice melt ice plot equal role. Accumulation in the top of the snow belt continuously added, while the valleys on both sides of the supply of a large number of ice and snow avalanche; ablation zone occurred in the melting ice and snow and evaporation. 

If added to the volume of glaciers and depletion of the volume just to balance, the glaciers on the stay is no longer advance; if added to the amount in excess of wear and tear, then to move forward into the glacier; but if more than the addition of the volume of wear and tear, the glacier retreat backwards. The so-called retreat, does not refer to the retreat of glaciers true, because glaciers are fixed and moving down, so is the retreat of glaciers shrinking range. At present, most of the world's glaciers are in retreat phase. 

In addition, before and after the addition of glaciers could be divided into two bands (that is, the accumulation zone and ablation zone), the glacier can also be divided into two parts from top to bottom, above some of the more brittle fracture zone known as the (zone of fracture); below bear part above the weight and pressure, such as a plastic body as slowly as the movement of the sliding belt (zone of flow). In addition, the speed of glacier flow as a result of changes in flow caused by done (extending flow) and compressed stream (compressing flow) in Glacier Valley, slowing down the slope of the paragraph, extrusion and thickening of the ice to form a compressed stream; the other hand, ice layer occurred elongated form done flow. 

As the glaciers of the fluid around the lower part of different ideas, Kennedy brittle upper body strength of the ice is very low, coupled with friction on both sides of the valley and glacial valley beneath the ground level of undulating terrain, so the surface of many glacier crevasse (crevasses) . Glacier crevasse is the most obvious, the most abundant structure, the upper body Kennedy brittle ice rattle when the ice below under continuous flow of the role of the enormous cracks. Crevasse is a tension crack is due to the different glacier movement arising. The location of glaciers in different games produce different crevasse, in general the main crevasse include: 

(1) horizontal crevasse when the glacier movement, glacier at the bottom of rugged rocks, so that the speed of glacier flow different, when the glaciers formed to accelerate the flow would have done the horizontal crevasse, horizontal crevasse and glacier flow vertical direction. 


(2) the edge of glacier crevasse Movement, along the valley walls generated by pulling trailers. 

(3) vertical crevasse expansion when the glaciers began to form at the end of glacier crevasse, vertical crevasse and parallel to the direction of glacier flow. 

(4) radial crevasse in the glacier is the most peripheral, when the glacier developed into a prominent part of the circle formed. 

Glacier factors control the flow of ice thickness, temperature, slope characteristics, valleys and glaciers in the shape of the rock and by taking the amount of such debris. If the glaciers at the bottom and between caused by a layer of ice-melting water film on the movement of glaciers can be of great help. Regardless of the movement of glaciers by which factors, has always been forward movement of glaciers.

The distribution of glaciers

Modern glacier surface area accounts for about 10 percent of global products, including Antarctica and Greenland, the most important area of Antarctica glaciers accounted for 85%, and the total volume of global ice in Antarctica, about 91 percent; Greenland glaciers are share of the global area of 12%, glacier volume total, compared with 8 percent. 

1. World Glacier District 

Area (km2) 


Antarctica 12,700,000 

Greenland 1,800,000 

Canada 153,000 Islands group 

Mountains of Central Asia 125,000 

Spitsbergen Islands 58,000 

54,000 Russian Arctic Islands 

Alaska 52,000 

Andes 25,000 

Western Canada 25,000 

Iceland 12,000 Scandinavian 4,200 

3,600 Alps 

Caucasus Mountain 2,000 

New Zealand 1,000 


United States 530 

Other 800 



2. A well-known large glaciers 

Name and Location Area (km2) Length (km) 

Wanaka ice ridge, Iceland 8,400 --- 

that glaciers, Alaska 5,000 100 

Fitz into Ko glaciers, the Pamirs 1,350 77 

Even about glaciers, Norway 855 70 

Great Aletsch Glacier, Switzerland 115 26

Types of glaciers

Mainly based on the type of glacier ice shape, size and terrain conditions which is divided into the following three categories: 

1. Continental glaciers (continental glaciers) 

 
Also known as ice (ice sheet) for the scale of the broad masses of continental glacier glacier coverage in the mainland or highland areas, all of the mountains, valley and plains all be covered. The central part of the higher, ice from the central to move around in any direction, not melt directly into the sea, which covers the entire land from the edge of the land directly into the sea, it said the mainland glaciers. Usually can reach 3000 meters in thickness, some were round or oval. 

Broad continental glacier ice have very thick body, its own weight in the strong pressure from the glacier extends constantly expand, with an area of constantly increasing, it was into the local small-scale ice tongue outriggers layer compared with the ice cap (ice cap) if the land development of glaciers into the sea, the huge body of ice collapsed into the sea because the sea ice body than light, will become the tip of the (iceberg), the Arctic sea steeple-shaped tip of the most positive is the Arctic Circle all the island's ice slide caused by the sea; the Antarctic near the tip of the mostly flat-topped tables were shaped by covering the Antarctic continent on the end of the gradual collapse of large ice floating in the sea due. 


2. Valley glacier (valley glaciers) 

Occurred in the mountains or snow above the snow line, the mainstream by the glacier and its tributary the composition of the sub-alpine glaciers throughout the system. When moving down the ice along the valley, cross the snow line to continue to lower its liquidity and rivers similar circumstances, known as the valley glacier. Glacier Valley to the snow line for the sector, with a clear accumulated snow and ice melt zone area. Long valley glacier may be a few kilometers to tens of kilometers away, several hundred meters thick. If the separate existence of a glacier, called single valley glacier; by several glaciers sinks and is called composite valley glacier. 


3. Foothills glaciers (piedmont glaciers) 

When the valley glacier outflow from the mountain Taniguchi arrived in flat areas, ice to the plane to start or expand in the foothill areas a vast ice sheets, occupy a substantial area, the flow very slowly, known as the piedmont glacier. 



Above all the different types of glaciers can be converted each other, when the snow line lower valley glacier gradually expanded to the foothills of the extension of glaciers has become foothills. When the cold wet climate, snow increased the scope of the expansion of the foothills to the plains of glaciers are continuing to expand at the same time because of snow and ice buried thickening and the formation of continental mountain glaciers.

The formation of glaciers

In polar and alpine regions, the climate cold, snow all the year round, when the snow accumulation on the ground, if the temperature dropped to below zero, you can be its own role or the pressure caused by the re-crystallization Snow Grains, known as the firn (firn). When the snow would bring to more deep buried firn, ice crystallization becoming rough, and the density of firn firn due to the existence of particles in the air to reduce the size increased, so has become more dense firn and the formation of blue glacial ice, glacier ice formed, due to its own gravity to form a great Plastomers, slow movement along the slopes or in the ice flows slowly under the pressure of the formation of glaciers. 


Glacier is an open system, the role of glaciers in the under gravity flow. Snow piled up in the way into the glacier system, and changes in the formation of ice, ice in its own weight under the pressure brought by the accumulation of outward flow of ice in the ablation zone by way of evaporation and melting left the system. Ablation in the accumulation rate of speed and balance between the system determines the size of glaciers. 

Glacier before and after can be divided into two parts, or the upper reaches of the latter part of the glacier known as the accumulation zone (zone of accumulation); in the downstream part of the former or the glacier known as the belt (zone of ablation) the dividing line is the snow line, in the the snow line of snow accumulation and ablation volume in the balance.

About River Conservation

Rivers and human nature thanks to a generous gift of human origin, development and have relied on the river trip. West, such as the Euphrates, the Tigris River basin; China's Yellow River Basin are all breeds the cradle of human cultural development. Throughout the hydrological cycle, all along the river plays an important role. Land, water, river water, including the vast majority. Therefore human drinking water can not be non-reliance on the river, in addition to the physiological indispensable, the rivers, shipping, communication and the availability of, linking the groups to bring people to a great convenience. Alluvial river delta is derived from grain, food upon which the growth of the main land. In China, the main origin of rice in the Yangtze River Delta in Thailand is the Mekong River Basin. Ancient and modern man's use of the river, despite the different ways, today's awareness of the use of more diversified rivers. In addition to irrigation shipping, the more power generation and metallurgical and other industrial uses, The list goes on. 

With the increased use of the worries caused by the increase will be, relatively speaking. Such as river pollution is the world all the industrial countries must be dealt with and resolved issues. However, faced with this issue there are two types of countries, one is already very high level of industrial countries, such as the United States the people of these countries with the Government on environmental protection have a high degree of consensus with the concept of heart, their quality of life is not simply the number of control on the use of natural ability, but to give the number of natural love and care. In other words, it can be harmonious with nature, to what extent. This is an inherent spirit of the demand; another country is still in the development of the industrial countries, they are the only indicator that is to upgrade people's living standards, increasing gross national product and industrial standards and so on. The environment such as rivers, forests and so on, the intention of seizing the desire, and never return or never thought to return. The results of economic growth, and the rich countries have gradually, but the river pollution, ecological damage, the painful price is precarious in the money people can not see! For them, seeking food and clothing for all the people is the most important, this is also the national government and people attach great importance to the concerns and focus. 

However, the comprehensive development plan, taking into account the people's spiritual and material needs of life, for each country, will need to be this perfect idea. Perhaps not now, but the future must be! Taiwan's major construction projects, it was also not environmentally friendly, but now may not be the same. Nevertheless, the comprehensive development plan is not difficult to regulate on how to draw a right to timely perfect blueprint, but in the implementation of this plan, the need to give up and sacrifice. It would be the focus of people watching! In fact, the word willing, is that there are homes there were, and vice versa.

The use of rivers and comprehensive development

a, the use of rivers 

Geography on the river in one of the resources as an important and regarded as a hub for a variety of resource development. The use of the river can be divided into the following aspects:

First, rivers and drinking water 

In the power industry has not yet developed areas, the rivers are important beverages. It is generally important towns and a local development center, were distributed in the River. The distribution of the main reasons in addition to general shipping things, and drinks and washing water were taken from the river. Even well-developed metropolis of electricity residents use the water of its water from the river also. 

Second, rivers and agricultural use 

Growth of agricultural products in the germination period, the moisture needs of the rain. Without the rain, then in relation to depend on irrigation. In the mainland provinces, the highest density of irrigation canals for the Yangtze River Delta and the Chengdu Plain. Therefore also the most densely population. Taiwan drought depends on irrigation reservoirs.

Third, the river and industrial water 

Metropolitan factory developed areas, many of the industrial water demand. So often the industrial zone near the river bank, or near river banks are. 

Generally speaking geographically: 

(1) near riverbank 

(2) of the rendezvous point for the river 

(3) For the Riverside 

Often an important condition for industrial factories. 

Fourth, rivers and hydro - 

Hydraulic geographically considered to be the driving force for one of the resources on Taiwan, undulating terrain, and rainfall, and it is very rich in hydropower resources. On the hydraulic capacity, the Chuoshui River's largest, followed by Tachia. Today, Sun Moon Lake's hydro-electric power project is to use part of the Chuoshui River water; Tianlun Tachia River Power Plant is to use a part of the hydraulic. Tachia Momoyama collection, the Central Jianshan, Beacon green, etc. leucocephala Shannan, two slope north of the water, into a valley (Longitndital Valley) and its origins and also the Department of Taiwan Province, one of three wet, rainy summer, winter is also very rich, small changes in river flow, drainage area also widely and become suitable for the construction of the reservoir area. Therefore, water is mountainous areas of Taiwan as an important resource. 



B, the comprehensive development of river 

First, the comprehensive development of the thrust is: 

Consider the natural conditions of land, combined with economic, social and cultural views of the integrated decision-making, so that an integrated land use and development, the preservation of various industries in the region to adjust handout, but for the purposes of social welfare. 

Second, the comprehensive development of content: 

Homeland is a comprehensive development of population, food, living elements of stability problems. In other words, for a variety of interrelated resource development plans. Project costs less, and to be completed by a high degree of development, is the comprehensive development of strengths. With regard to the comprehensive development plan to have all aspects of the river have the following types: 


(1) dam construction (Dam) to make into a reservoir 

(2) hydro-electric power 

(3) to facilitate the shipping 

(4) so that the rivers and canals between the navigable rivers 

(5) the supply of agricultural water 

(6) the supply of industrial water 

(7) to the above-mentioned driving force for the development of hydropower industry 

(8) in the reservoir around the development of tourism industry 

(9) the use of hydropower development sulfur fertilizer ammonia plant 

Dam's construction as the center of the river development plan. Upon completion of a dam, power generation and industry will grow vigorously at the same time, you can adjust the water to flood control, also available for irrigation water, the cultivated fields to engage in height. And fish in reservoirs, coupled with water rich in wooded, become elements of tourism. So on the terms of the comprehensive development of river that is the paragraph by paragraph river dam located development. 

Third, the comprehensive development of the examples 

The United States in 1933, President Roosevelt's New Deal in the (New deal), the Tennessee Valley began working for a large-scale integrated development plan, that is, China's so-called "Tian domain security plan." 

"Tian domain security plan"-Tennesscc Valley Autharity 

Untapped before the Tennessee River floods frequently, resulting in very low standard of living of farmers. At that time, plans to build 30 dams, power generation equipment have. Since the completion of all the existing three million kilowatts of generation capacity. Tian domain security area because of the hydro-electric power, so one after another chain aluminum industry flourishing, and the sulfur ammonia chemical fertilizer plant, especially the first development and sale of cheap fertilizer on farmers, and their manner of electricity are also inexpensive and In the life of electrical equipment are at the same time in forestry, but also contribute to water conservation, landscape beautification. Due to irrigation of agricultural production increased, and in Bashang gate devices in order to facilitate shipping. So while the completion of the comprehensive development plan. This geographical previous standard of living of the residents in the United States about 45 percent below average, since the plan is completed, probably to its average over more than 50 percent. Comprehensive development plan shows the effectiveness of the splendid.

The cycle of the role of river topography

U.S. scientists terrain Davis's first cycle of the concept of the creation of the river, when the river began to cut the original ground (has never been erosion and destruction of the ground), the river that is the beginning of the cycle. A cycle from start to finish the process to form the river of history. And at every stage of the process have different topographical features. Taii be divided into three stages, and early childhood, prime, and old age. 

A childhood: 

When the ground began to undermine the original, early childhood activities have started nurturing it. This phase of the topographical features of the cross section for the valley V-shaped surface, there is no flood plain along the river cross-strait development, the watershed between the two rivers is also a broad level, and rivers are often capture the phenomenon occurred. The hard rock in the river, which has occurred in falls or rapids. This phenomenon is particularly common in early childhood, to the former prime upcoming eradication. Childhood this stage is to make the original ground level to increase or expand the ups and downs and downs of the times, towards the end of childhood, the terrain is characterized by high mountains and deep valley, the ground is extremely rugged. 


B prime 

Prime period, the terrain is still a high mountain scene in a deep valley, the river began widening the role of the watershed between the rivers as a result of the increase in river terrace to minimize is the sharp ridge. River on both sides have begun to have a considerable range of the alluvial plain of the emergence of freedom of meandering rivers in the flood plain meandering flow. Than the width of the river bed meandering stream with only the width of a little wide, and at this time, river rock and fully adapt to the nature and structure of the distribution of rivers, often in rock vulnerable areas. Terrain for the whole of the current cycle could reach most of those ups and downs, hillsides and valley side slope, often the criteria for relief, rather than by the high valley at the end of the distance to the top of that. In addition, one of the original juvenile lake or waterfall, etc., to the current period has been eliminated. 

C old age 

Through childhood and prime erosion, the uplift of the original surface has been eroded to near sea level, and because the river will not flow to the sea with the gravity of kinetic energy to erode the ground (due to sea-level setting for the erosion datum). At this stage the valley is extremely broad, and vertical and horizontal two aspects are very gentle slope. The whole ground covered with a thick layer of debris, the debris has been weathering become very fine particles of clay or sandy soil. Significantly the development of flood plains, rivers in the broad and tortuous river flows slowly. Many times greater than the width of the valley with meandering stream. Hejian watershed as sharp as prime. Lakes, swamps and wetlands (Marshes) appear in the flood plains is not, as exists in childhood Hejian region. Due to the nature of the differences in rock, so that changes in the role of the river, in the prime of life which very significantly to the current period have been obvious. To the elderly when the final phase of the ground may have been a little plain, slightly peneplain, when the ground has been very close to the erosion datum. 

D rejuvenate the role of 

From childhood to old age as a cycle, because of the impact of external changes, such as rapid sea-level rise or decline sharply, so that the sudden erosion of base-level change, then the river erosion and deposition of the effect of rapid changes followed, often in prime terrain or old age, the emergence of childhood terrain characteristics. The occurrence of the phenomenon known as the Hui role, often forming the valley valley, river access, or digging meandering stream, such as cutting of the terrain.

Alluvial river terrain

The role of the alluvial river 

If the upper reaches of rivers and tributaries are taking too much or carrying sediment force is likely to weaken once the deposition, when the river water flow along the river bed slope can be water from soil erosion to the lower reaches of gravel removal, which discussed the role of the river as follows: 

1. The impact of silt content increased, leading to a reduction in the reasons for removal: 

1) The river flows through the soft rock region 

Silt content of the river will increase, such as the Loess Plateau of China's Yellow River flows through the middle reaches of the sediment concentration increased, resulting in the prevalence of sediment downstream, resulting in Huanghuai Plain. 

2) climate change 

Flash floods, taken off a lot of sediment, such as Taiwan summer and more typhoons, each time after the storm, so that the river sediment concentration increased, in order to defy the power of removal, then precipitation occurs. 

3) the human factor 

Human river upstream logging, such as, inadequate water and soil conservation, rain water erosion, soil erosion, leading to increased sediment downstream. 



 The impact of river flow slowly, moving force resulting weakening of the reasons 

1) to reduce the bed slope 

General river upstream slope but to enter a plain, slope by the sharp decline in velocity from acute slow, handling is also followed weaker. The influence of sediment was deposited in the mountain prevalent, resulting in the foothills of the alluvial fan, such as China's two foot of Tianshan oasis. 


2) river wider range 

Rivers flowing through valleys, a great flow, but out of a canyon, into the plains, flow rates widened, the flow rate slowed down, Sui-sheng deposition. As the Yangtze River by the Three Gorges in Yichang deposition occurred in the east, resulting in the Jianghan Plain. 

3) reduction of river flow 

Removal and river flow is directly proportional. Therefore, to reduce the river flow, its removal will naturally reduce excess sediment deposition will occur, so the river branches, the deposition of very Sheng, such as the Minjiang River in China due to some of the following Guanxian Dujiangyan irrigation works, will be divided into Minjiang inside and outside the two rivers, the flow reduction, removal of power decentralization, Sui-sheng precipitation. 

4) the water flow path blocked 

Landslides or cave-ins, a large number of sand blocking the river so that flow down to form a deposition. 



  Alluvial river terrain 

Because of the topography of the river alluvial from mobile, it is important are: 


1. Deposition cone (a l l u v i a l c o n e) 

Since the height of the mountains, river discharge, the influence of gravel piled up in front steep mountain slope into a range of large and small cone of the terrain is. 

2.Alluvial fan (a l l u v i a l fan) 

Mountain rivers flow radical, one flowing into the ground but leave the valley, the gradient dropped, the flow rate dropped sharply in front of a large number of sediment in the low-width Department Yamaguchi alluvial and fan-so start to form a fan-plain, is called "alluvial fan" such as the Chengdu Plain in Sichuan. 

3. Flood plain (Flood plain) 

Cross-strait rivers often flood during the flood period, when in flood, flood the kidnapped with the river sediment deposited on the proliferation of reach of the ground, the formation of the low edge of the red layer (alluvim), is to "flood plain." Rivers in the flood plain on the flow, because of flooding so that sediment in the river on both sides have a natural levee, called the natural levee (naturallevees).

The role of rivers and a variety of terrain

Generally speaking, whether river or stream of flowing water are "the erosion (erosion), transportation (transportation), deposition (deposition)" during the three phenomena. As follows: 

  Water erosion and the terrain: 

Water erosion of conduct: 
1. Impact (impcut) 

On steep slopes to turbulence, flow strong, born of kinetic energy will have an impact force, the riverbed at the bottom or at the side of soft rock song, or more cracks in the rock bedding face, joints and so on, due to the impact of the role of fragments formed by flowing water Jiang forward to taking the lower reaches of the accumulation. This effect occurred in the upper reaches of the river. 

II. Abrasion role (corrasion) 

Taking gravel or rock flow times, and as a tool for its abrasion bed rock foundation, the occurrence of erosion is the most effective and most powerful way of erosion. Gravel friction between themselves or with the bed grinding collision, resulting in sharp particles Polyhedrosis Gradient into a round gravel, handling the longer distance, the more increase in its roundness. Therefore, removal of gravel rivers are mostly gravel round. 

III. Excavation role, (gurrying) 

Taking water into the gravel or stones in the riverbed rock fissure terrified and immediately out collisions friction growing fissures and finally collapse of the role of the phenomenon known as the excavation. 

IV. Dissolution (solution) 

River dissolution of soluble minerals, so that the riverbed was corrosion and damage, such a role in the region and other soluble limestone rock by the river area into a more common, more along the rock joints and other surfaces generated. 

Water erosion and the development of the valley:
Usually the terrain of a river valley development by the following three types of erosion affected by: 

1. To enhance the role of (deeping) 

General of the upper reaches of the river bed or a tributary of the nascent, fast-flowing steep slope, under the power cut, so that the riverbed erosion down low phenomenon, known as the role under the cut (downcutting), making the valley into a V-shaped multi-terrain. 

II. Broadbanding role (widening) 

Due to increased traffic flow of river water erosion will occur side (lateral erosion). Water side corrosion can widen the two sides back, it is also called the lateral erosion "broad role" 

III. Lengthened role (valley lengthning) 

In the development of the upper reaches of the river, a tributary of the new collection of the most significant, it is very likely the first rock and steep valley, rock collapse of earth and rock slide, with the result that the source of upward stretching the length of the upper reaches of the increase, it referred to as "extended role." This phenomenon is known as to the source of erosion (headward erosion), referred to as the "source of corrosion." 

River erosion terrain 
Day-to-day most likely to see the erosion of the terrain are the following: 


1. Rapids and waterfalls (rapids or waterfalls) 

Riverbed profile radical dumping, rugged, or the strength of different rock resist force, Kennedy protruding rocks obstructing cross the river, or down the steep cliff, a large gap between upper and lower can be into the rapids or waterfalls, such as between China's Shaanxi Yellow River , there are rapids and Hukou Waterfall Longmen. Qara mud between the United States and Canada Falls, drop up to 60 meters, hydraulic highly. 


2. Tam Hang or pothole (potholes) 

In falls below water are under the influence of gravel, hit the bottom, resulting in low-lying point, stagnant water into the lake, known as "Tan pit", body of water that often swirl, gravel with water rotation, percussive Wall, in the lake surface generate Wall groove will enable the expansion of Lake pit. Great Falls under the water before the formation of a deep circular pit teams, known as "diving pool." Northern Taiwan, the upper reaches of the Keelung River Valley pothole terrain is developed. 


III. Meandering stream (meander) 

Water is fluid, even when flows are resistance, then to the lateral flow away from the phenomenon. When towards the right bank of the river, the wharf by water erosion, thus gradually become a concave bank; the other hand on the left bank of the relative velocity due to slow momentum reduction is Health deposition was into convex shore. Bump synthesis of cross-strait Riverbend back songs like Snake rivers, is to "meandering", also known as the "Snake River."

Meandering stream will be formed during the development of all-terrain following: 

(1) etching meandering stream (incised mannder) 

The upper reaches of mountains and rivers staggered back to peak to valley, the river bypass become a meandering stream,flow due to acute and severe water cut etching, so that deep valley, on both sides of the steep such as V-shaped, then the river known as the "moment meandering stream erosion. " 

(2) freedom of meandering stream (free mannder) 

Once the river into the plain, the river bed gradient to reduce the water slowly, to both sides of the swing, both sides of the well-the result of erosion, widening the valley (more than deepen the Valley), was wide into the bottom level, flow into S-shaped "free meandering stream." 

(3) cutting slope (undercut slope) 

Qu stream erosion by flowing backward concave bank, high and steep river bank, known as the "cut slope," because the rock base of the very significant erosion, it is also called the "eclipse-based slope." 

(4) slippery slope away (slip-off slope) 

The prevalence of the opposite concave bank deposits, low-shore spread gently flowing water, coastal, referred to as the "slippery slope away." 

(5) meandering stream neck (meander neck) 

If the radius of meandering stream gradually expanded so that resettlement outside the meandering stream, the meandering stream into a meandering stream and between the ground has been gradually reduced by the fact that the narrow watershed said, "meandering stream neck."

(6) oxbow lake (oxbow lake) 

As the meandering stream on a narrow neck, if it was pierced, the bends of the river cut through the meandering stream shortcut (neck cutoff), trip into the new river channel, was to abandon the old Road, the meandering stream water into a lake, called the "oxbow Lake ", also known as the Horseshoe Lake (horseshoe-shaped lake), meandering stream meandering stream that marks relics (mander scerrs). 


IV river (river terrace) 

Rivers above the river, up and down like a row, such as band-like platform, known as the "river." The formation of river bluffs of the following factors: 

(1.) Sudden increase in river flow 

(2.) Sand content dropped 

(3.) Site uplift 

(4.) Reduce erosion datum 

The impact of the factors mentioned above is to cut down water erosion force from weak to strong, and erosion of the resurrection, so that the original alluvial plain rivers will no longer be cut, a part of being corroded to produce V-shaped valley, the two sides of the left part of the plains to become a high tableland of the river; similar situations such as intermittent times, while the formation of ladder-shaped platform, said Riverside platform that river. Depending on the nature of river can be divided into river 

(1.) River bed rock (bedrock terrace) 

Water into the bedrock, deep valley to make the bed rock surface formed by the Ministry of valley mesa (starth terrace) that the river bed rock. Although inter-impermeable rock, but also weathered, anti-hard lasting. 

(2.) Alluvial river (alluvial terrace) 

Rivers in the alluvial or flood plain re-cut after the two sides over the river erosion will be higher than the alluvial river into a band-like, named. Alluvial river bluffs, the hard rock, if the emergence of resistance to water erosion forward, so that the protection of river (protected terrace). 

V. river capture 

Pro-phase difference between two rivers due to erosion, low water level in the river to the high water level upstream of the river, or to grab some water phenomenon has been called the "river capture." 

(A), the causes of river capture 

1) rock resist the strength of different forces 

In rainfall or less the same climatic conditions, such as rivers, as more soft rock, poor corrosion resistance is lower places valley, well the source of corrosion and corrosion-side result of the watershed has been pierced, penetrated the high-water level of the B River, then B River became a tributary of the river or on the new source, so a river called the river capture. B upper reaches of the river called the River B looted River attack cut away to become the first river. 

2) slope and rainfall due to the different 

In the watershed on both sides, different slope, climate also vary, and run counter to the flow of two rivers, such as a river slope more rainfall, and its erosion, relatively strong compared to the source of erosion will speed, such as river slope smaller B , traffic little less erosion, river erosion of a more moderate upward source. Two Rivers watershed is therefore a must for crossing the river by the invasive B River, so that B A River water into the river. B River became a tributary of the river. Such as Northeast China Nenjiang was the upper reaches of the Liaohe, Songhua river erosion as a result of strong Nenjiang speed was seized for a tributary of the East China, Nenjiang became the Liaohe River divert become truncated River. 

(B), river capture terrain 

1) capture bending 

Attack away down the river in the transition to capture injected into a river by bending branches, namely the so-called capture bends, such as the Jinsha River in Yunnan Province near the east of Shek Kwu Department is of folding. 


2) river bluffs and canyon 

Capture river flow due to the sudden increase, erosion enhanced, re-cut, have a river valley along the river or canyon. 

  The role of water removal 

The river water flow along the river bed slope, the velocity and flow will produce kinetic energy, can be from water erosion of soil, gravel and handling, this erosion of the river to carry the material to the role of its role as the removal. These substances known as the river load, carrying the weight of the material because of transportation and the removal force size, have the following three ways 

I suspended the role of 

Fine mud lighter can be suspended in the water, drift down for transportation, these substances known as the "suspended load." 

II jumps role 

Larger because of the weight of sand and gravel, and by boosting the water a short distance ahead jump phenomenon. 

III rolling or shifting the role of 

Sand or gravel by flowing water forces, rolling along the river bed or pan phenomenon. This removal of material called bed load 』. And some substances dissolved in the water with the water and the next, known as the "dissolved load."

The name of various parts of the river

Usually the source of the river in the mountains, bringing together a small source of water has gradually joined the ranks or infiltration from the surface into the river. The river has its own river, known as the river at the bottom of the riverbed, known as the shore on both sides. When we look at the lower reaches of the river to the left as the left bank, known as the right bank of the right. A river and its tributaries have been merged into river systems, the entire river system, including the region known as a watershed. The size and flow of the river, and the whole area the size of stagnant water and rainfall-related. Separating the two river systems of the mountain known as the watershed. 

Rivers flow path: 

Can be broadly divided into three sections, and the upper reaches of the middle reaches of the lower reaches, this part of the length of different nature is not the same. 


  Upstream 

The upper reaches of the slope known as the gradient, steep, urgent flow, the slope of decline in the proportion of often more than 50 feet per mile, which dropped 9.3 meters per kilometer. Slope erosion in the upper reaches of the fast, the two sides are very steep, sometimes almost vertical angle, rivers removal ability to move the gravel, and sometimes also carry a large and heavy rock, and the continuous erosion the riverbed, but also because the flow faster, easier to river erosion into a small gully or canyon. 


  Midstream 

Part of the middle reaches of the river to flow to the lower, the slope more gentle, more or less fell by 0.4 per kilometer to 1.9 meters (per mile decreased by 2 ~ 10 feet), velocity slowed down gradually unable to carry heavy things, had no choice but to pile up in the river and, therefore, in the middle reaches of the river bed are often part of the riverbed gravel accumulation. River erosion have reduced the strength of many, the two sides, flat broad valley gradually. 


  Downstream 

Part of the downstream and midstream similar circumstances, but even slower rate, the accumulation of silt gradually raise the bed height, gradient drop per kilometer less than 20 cm (a foot per mile drop), the river often floods caused by river overflow plains.

From gene to see the evolution - from the fruit fly's compound eye to talk about evolution and development of

Eyes to the window of our soul is the perception of animals an important channel for the external environment, with a very important function. The evolution of eyes has been the evolution of an important controversy, opponents argue that it is hard to imagine such a complex organ sophisticated selection through the mechanism.Biologists to compare different animal eyes, analyze the pattern of development, optical structure, found to have many differences, so that in the course of evolution, many different animals have evolved independently in this visual organ eyes. Walter Gehring Switzerland in 1995 discovered a decision Drosophila compound eye development of master genes, and deduced the most eye development upstream regulatory mechanism may have evolved only once, that is to say all kinds of visual organs are derived from the same ancestors. The speech will be about the development of Drosophila compound eye to discuss the evolution of eyes.

We are at the center of the universe it? - The evolution of the human universe

Since ancient times, people constantly ask ourselves if we come from? Where to go?Whether we are God's voters, among the universe of life unique? Therefore, from the east to Western philosophers spent a lot of time to explore what is "the universe"? With this speech, we will explore how the world view of human evolution.Whether it is China's said that night declared that the period of ancient Greece or Nichido said that with the earth that our ancestors were trying to use the limited knowledge of the vastness of the universe to explain the process; modern science after budding, from the Columbia White Nepal to Galileo and Kepler, as well as Newton, Herschel, Albert Einstein, Harper and others efforts, let us also understand that people in the universe which the status of; and hoped that by this perception, so that the world can understand the relationship between man and nature.

Avenue of Stars Rings - from interstellar molecular cloud to the birth of stars

When we looked up the night sky (if lucky), you might see is a little bit of visible stars. Set up a telescope, deep look into the distance outside the galaxy, is visible Stars. Stars, can be said to be the universe's basic "particle." Where did they come from? What is the process of heat and light so that they eventually boarded the "Avenue of Stars"? The current understanding of stellar astronomers is diffuse in interstellar molecular clouds bred birth. A cloud due to the shelter, it is difficult to directly use the naked eye, or visible light observations to study the star formation process. Today, let us together with astronomers through the millimeter wave, sub-millimeter wave, and infrared band observation, spy buried in a cloud, the star of a variety of interesting phenomenon was born.

A penny daunted hero Han - Galileo, Darwin, where the most enviable

English scientist of the word, appeared in 1840. The scientists of the occupation, until the twentieth century has become the livelihood of the middle class options.Over the past engaged in scientific research, not their own money, is sponsored by the rich. Galileo and Darwin are great scientists, but their different fortunes and misfortunes in life, as well as the great achievements with the "family property" are closely related. For example, the Galileo in order to maintain life, and even to be at home to open classes, while Darwin is a lifetime of not receiving their salaries, "a gentleman scientist." Galileo met you want is Darwin, the first question would be what? 
Engaged in science, the first step is to learn from previous successes, and that the opportunity cost to pay. Research (including experiments) and the publication of the results, but also non-money Mo do. It is no wonder that most people miss and science.

from single to multi-universe

Galileo four hundred years ago, mankind from the first time since the telescope point to the sky, on the continuous survival of our expanding universe of understanding. First of all, he observed from the telescope proved Copernicus's theory of the solar center, wrapped in the following four hundred years, scientists have first to understand the solar system in the Milky Way is just one of more than one hundred billion stars. Over the past hundred years, astronomers have further found that the universe, the Milky Way is only one of 10 billion galaxies. Over the past 20 years and we know that 95% of the universe called dark element of quality and a dark can , the nature of scientists are still unable to determine, what is even more surprising is that our universe may not be the only one, but a universe of hundreds of thousands. Follow the footsteps of Galileo along the way, we can not help but ask, mankind's position in the universe for that?

Astronomers first observed from the Earth's atmosphere extrasolar planets

Today, two teams of scientists published a report published for the first time detected in Earth's atmosphere of extrasolar planets results of the study.

Extrasolar planets are orbiting a star other than the Earth's solar system functioning, it is difficult to detect the stars, the two reports were published, for the study of extrasolar planets has opened up a territory of Xinjiang.

Has been detected extrasolar planets almost 300, but astronomers think that there are more to be explored, some of which extrasolar planets, so that the Earth may have had similar conditions for the birth.

So far, the atmosphere on extrasolar planets understanding, almost all "Edwards Spiegel" (Spitzer) Infrared Space Telescope collected.

But Spiegel is used to allow the telescope to maintain cooling equipment refrigerant will soon be used up to a serious limited observation capabilities.

The report published today a group of team detected that the Earth is several times the size of large planets "OGLE-TR-56b", which is a so-called "hot Jupiters" (hot Jupiter).

Hot Jupiter orbits very close to their stars, they are very close, it is believed that their temperature, sufficient to be released from the Earth's point of view, to optical wavelength with the near-infrared wavelength radiation distributed.

Carnegie Institute of Washington (Carnegie Institution) the Morales (Mercedes Lozez-Morales) said: "The secret of success is: release a lot of planetary heat, the atmosphere is almost no wind."

In addition, the Earth must also be clear calm night, in order to run the Department of extrasolar planets to their stars behind the emergence of eclipse phase, the correct estimate of the difference in their heat.

Last summer, two scientists observing OGLE-TR-56b, one of which used the European Southern Observatory (Euroean Southern Observatory) of the "Very Large Telescope" (Very Large Telescope), the first use of the Carnegie Endowment for their own "Lombard" (Magellan-Baade ) telescopes, two telescopes are installed in Chile.

Dutch astronomer in a separate also published in Paris, "Astronomy and Astrophysics" (Astronomy and Astrophysics) Journal study, published detected an exoplanet another "TrES-3b" distributed energy report.

Volcanic terrain

Volcanic skeleton 

 When volcanic activity ceased, the erosion of the role of then forthcoming, weak sediments are corrosion, and the remaining is to do some hard igneous veins standing surface, the volcanic terrain skeleton known as the volcano (Volcanic skeletons). Volcanic formation, first of all persons shall be eroded volcanic cone (Volcanic cones), cone contains many large volcanic quality, easy-permeable of these substances, it could enhance its corrosion resistance, and the volcanic cone for radial water system, as a result of Hill Cone considerable slope, rivers easy to cut, can form small canyon. After a long-term erosion of the volcanic cone, only a small number of hard rock residues, these remnants of the terrain to volcanic neck and dyke-feng (Dike ridges) is most common for the lava rock wall in the vertical by condensation into a rock, if the intrusion of the large number of magmatic material , the Diagenetic also has strength and corrosion resistance dyke generally weak, they can form mountain dyke; But Hill is not very rock wall and has a number of vertical tilt, then in appearance back Cliff like pig (Hog backs) , the difference between the two, mainly from the nature of the rocks on the start for the volcanic rock formed by the wall, pigs back is by the side of cliffs and steep rock formation. Dyke can not form a peak, if the rock wall of stone weaker than the surrounding rock, it vulnerable to erosion by weathering depression. 

 Low-lying volcanic terrain 

 Volcanic eruptions and fall, can be found in the crater area of the formation of low-lying land, the Composite Williams (Howel Williams) and search Algabid (TA Jaggar)'s classification of the two laws, these low-lying land can be divided into three categories: 

 

 Crater (Craters) 

 Volcano eruptions (Explosion craters) 

 There are side crater (Crater within constructed rims) 

 Fall crater (Collapse craters) 

 Volcanic acetabular (Calderas) 

 Acetabular volcanic eruption (Explorsion calderas) 

 Subsidence volcano acetabular (Subsidence calderas) 

 Composite volcano acetabular (Composite calderas) 

 Volcanic tectonic depressions (Volcanic-tectonic depressions) 

 Acetabular crater and volcanic eruptions are the mouth, but both of different shapes, so the names are different, their differences are as follows: 

 a. crater size, often less than a mile in diameter, volcanic area of the acetabulum, and a few miles in diameter to tens of miles. 

 b. crater shape such as bowl, crater precipice down to the central relief; volcanic acetabular as surrounded steep precipice. As follows: 

 Crater 

 Usually in the mountain crater Central, will be known as the main crater (Main crater), formed in the side of a volcano crater called the Deputy (Pareasitic crater), a result of a volcanic eruption in the number of different locations each exhaled not identical, it is often a volcanic crater several months. Peltate in Hawaii volcano, there are many Xiaowa pool crater called Point (Volcanic sinks), this crater is mainly low-chu from the underground magma caused the collapse, it is the fall of the crater. If a volcano crater in another form, called the nest-shaped crater (Nested crater), this crater is the first generation to generation in a volcanic eruption in the mouth, so that the expansion of the original crater, and in the old fire Yamaguchi caused new crater and volcanic cone, and then on another part of continue to form a nest-shaped. Nest-shaped volcanoes and volcanic parasitic different, if the body in a volcanic cone that is the side of the slope have volcanic eruptions, the formation of a new volcanic body, then this new body is parasitic volcano volcano; for example, on Yangmingshan Mountain Shamao Tatun Mountain is a parasitic volcano, and the nest-shaped volcano in the re-eruption of the crater formed.

Volcanic acetabular 

 Acetabular past volcanic formation, is generally believed that due to the role of violent volcanic eruptions formed, but now that its main reason for the fall. William's view that some pot-shaped crater is separate from the role of the formation of the outbreak, although it said this little pot-shaped crater, the percent of area is also small. Regardless of the shape of a volcano, the first generation to start by the eruption of the role, but due to the bottom of a large number of cone after the eruption, leading to the bottom of emptiness, causing cone roof fall, forcing extended crater, which had been preceded by a number of volcanic acetabular by the eruption, after the fall into the dual role, Kirton also think that Williams and 10000 Milan (Vam Bemmelan) and others advocated by the fall of pot-shaped crater that should be called the outbreak of the fall, said (Explosion-collapse theory) a small number of volcanic acetabular? role may be purely made before or at the same time, there is no role with see eruption. Large volcanic depression, such as the Hawaiian Islands on crater and the crater are purely as a result of magma column lower down, causing the fall from the upper, resulting crater around often associated fault precipice gradually so that the expansion of the volcanic crater cave wall to form a large pot-shaped crater. fire in the pot-shaped mouth, there is a special form for the pot-shaped settlement (Cauldron subsidence). If a nearly circular block, subsidence in the lava cave in, so that by the extrusion of magma along the vertical cracks increased, resulting in ring-dyke, so in the pot-shaped crater area can be found to be corroded ring dyke with the same structure exists. 

 Volcano tectonic depression 

 Emitted by a volcanic eruption of pumice and lava material for the volume of a great accumulation of these substances in the surrounding volcanic and increase the pressure formation in the region, and the formation because of the large number of magma beneath the smoke, after this pressure was more prone to faults or folds fall, caused by depression. Indonesia's Sumatra island has a low-lying land, William style that is because a large number of pumice smoke caused by the formation of large-scale fall into, one of them? Stubble j flurried the pools of stagnant water to form the Palestinian territories Lake (Lake Toba). In the volcanic cone on the slopes, often many deep depressions, known as the Graben area (Sector Grabens), presumably because of the underground magma is empty, causing the top block down from faulting occurred, because faulting regard to the flank the movement of a larger formation of wide groove, then known as the volcanic groove (Volcanic rents). 

 

 The volcanic plateau and the plains 

 If the volcanic eruption in the region will have become flat lava plains (Lava plains), the majority of the lava plateau and plain, are all composed of mafic lava, only Yellowstone plateau and Ignatius plateau of lava and volcanic-rich acidic tuff. If the lava from a central volcano eruption outward flow, then it should by into cone and cereal-like lava flows, it is not easy sharing into a large, this lava outflows should be very calm along the spillover from many cracks before they can piled up into a plain or plateau. a region that volcanic eruptions can cause plain or plateau, depending on the volcanic cracks be persistent, if the rock cracks in the open ductus straight, then the person into a cone or volcanic fornix; if the closure of the old sewing sewing again opened a new, long-term outflow of lava pulp but not the accumulation of the same ground, then by becoming lava plateau or plateau; a wide range of lava plateau requires a large amount of cracks can only be formed, and the shield-shaped volcano (Shield volcano) the generation, you do not need so many crater.